Methods (general)

Question 1

Outline the process of conducting a sign test

Answer 1

1) Remove = scores
2) Add up positive scores and negative scores
3) Whichever is smaller is the calculated value
4) Using the table, find the critical value
5) Check if calculated value ≤ critical value
6) If so, the data is significant

Question 2

When would you use a directional hypothesis?

Answer 2

When the findings from previous research on a similar topic suggest a particular outcome

Question 3

When would you use a non-directional hypothesis?

Answer 3

When there is no previous research on the topic, or the findings of previous research on a similar topic have been contradictory

Question 4

What are the strengths of correlational research?

Answer 4

Doing correlational research is cheap and easy. It can be useful when an carrying out an experiment would be unethical. It can be done before an experimental study to establish patterns.

Question 5

Evaluate independent groups design

Answer 5

Strengths: not affected by order effects, less susceptible to demand characteristics
Weaknesses: affected by participant variables, requires twice as many participants

Question 6

Evaluate repeated measures design

Answer 6

Strengths: not affected by participant variables, requires fewer participants
Weaknesses: affected by order effects, susceptible to demand characteristics

Question 7

Evaluate matched pairs design

Answer 7

Strengths: not affected by order effects, less susceptible to demand characteristics, controls for participant variables
Weaknesses: time-consuming and expensive

Question 8

What are the limitations of correlational research?

Answer 8

You cannot draw causal conclusions. Sometimes you do not know which co-variable caused the change in the other, and sometimes there is even a hidden variable affecting both variables (the third variable problem).

Question 9

Evaluate laboratory experiments

Answer 9

Strengths: high control of EVs, good internal validity, good replicability
Weaknesses: artificial tasks, poor external validity, affected by demand characteristics

Question 10

Evaluate field experiments

Answer 10

Strengths: high mundane realism, good external validity
Weaknesses: low control of EVs, poor replicability, ethical issues with lack of consent

Question 11

Evaluate natural experiments

Answer 11

Strengths: high external validity, opportunities for research which may otherwise have ethical or practical limitations
Weaknesses: no random allocation, poor replicability, rarely occuring events

Question 12

Evaluate quasi experiments

Answer 12

Strengths: high control of EVs, good internal validity
Weaknesses: no random allocation, affected by confounding varibales

Question 13

What are the criteria for the sign test?

Answer 13

Related data (repeated measures design), it is a test of difference, nominal data (categories)

Question 14

Evaluate random sampling

Answer 14

Strength: free from researcher bias
Weaknesses: time-consuming, may still result in an unrepresentative sample

Question 15

Evaluate systematic sampling

Answer 15

Strengths: free from researcher bias, fairly representative
Weakness: time-consuming

Question 16

Evaluate stratified sampling

Answer 16

Strengths: free from researcher bias, representative
Weakness: sub-groups cannot perfectly categorise participants

Question 17

Evaluate opportunity sampling

Answer 17

Strengths: convenient, time and cost-effective
Weaknesses: researcher bias, unrepresentative

Question 18

Evaluate volunteer sampling

Answer 18

Strengths: time and cost-effective
Weakness: volunteer bias (attracts a certain ‘profile’ of participants - curious, keen, helpful)

Question 19

What do we need to know to use the critical values table for a sign test?

Answer 19

Whether the hypothesis is 1 or 2 tailed, the number of pieces of data, and the % of error allowed (usually 5%)

Question 20

How do we deal with informed consent?

Answer 20

Participants should be issued with a consent letter detailing all relevant information. If the participant is younger than 16, their parents’ consent should be gained too.

Question 21

How do we deal with deception and protection from harm?

Answer 21

At the end of the study participants should be fully debriefed (made aware of any deception, given the right to withdraw their data, given reassurance about their performance, and offered counselling)

Question 22

How do we deal with confidentiality?

Answer 22

Participants’ details should either be protected or they should remain anonymous, during briefing and debriefing they should be reminded that their data will be protected

Question 23

Evaluate naturalistic vs controlled observations

Answer 23

Naturalistic have high external validity, while controlled have good control of EVs and replicability

Question 24

Evaluate covert vs overt observations

Answer 24

Covert are not affected by participant reactivity increasing validity, while overt are more ethically sound

Question 25

Evaluate participant vs non-participant observations

Answer 25

Participant have good validity as the researcher gains important insight, while non-participant maintain objectivity

Question 26

How do we maximise and then measure inter-observer reliability?

Answer 26

The researchers would test their consistency in a pilot study, and then discuss any differences in interpretation. To measure inter-observer reliability the two sets of observations should be correlated (good = a correlation of 1).

Question 27

Evaluate structured observations

Answer 27

Strengths: recording data is easy and systematic, quantitative data is easy to analyse
Weaknesses: lacks rich observational detail, depends on quality of behavioural categories

Question 28

Evaluate unstructured observations

Answer 28

Strength: rich observational detail
Weaknesses: qualitative data is difficult to analyse, observer bias

Question 29

Evaluate event vs time sampling

Answer 29

Event sampling is useful when the target behaviour occurs infrequently, and records all instances of the target behaviour, while time sampling is useful in more complex observations by reducing the number of observations that have to be made.

Question 30

What are some strengths of questionnaires?

Answer 30

They are cost-effective, can gather large amounts of data, can be completed without the presence of an expert, and produce easy to analyse data that lends itself to statistical analysis

Question 31

What are some limitations of questionnaires?

Answer 31

They are reliant on truth and memory, and are affected by social desirability bias and response bias

Question 32

Evaluate structured interviews

Answer 32

They are easy to replicate, but give no room for elaboration or deviation so may miss important information

Question 33

Evaluate unstructured interviews

Answer 33

They are flexible which means that rich, precise detail can be gathered, but the data produced is difficult to analyse

Question 34

What five things should be avoided when writing questions for questionnaires and interviews?

Answer 34

Overuse of jargon, emotive language, leading questions, two-part questions, and double negatives

Question 35

Outline the design of an interview

Answer 35

The interviewer creates a standardised interview schedule, the interview takes place in a quiet room and begins with some neutral questions, the interviewer makes notes or records the answers, and the interviewee is reminded that their answers will remain confidential.

Question 36

Explain the difference between correlations and experiments

Answer 36

In an experiment the IV is manipulated to measure the DV, but in a correlation there is no such manipulation

Question 37

What are some strengths and weaknesses of qualitative data?

Answer 37

Strengths: rich detail, insightful, developed thoughts/feelings/opinions, good external validity
Weaknesses: difficult to analyse, subjective interpretation affected by bias

Question 38

What are some strengths and weaknesses of quantitative data?

Answer 38

Strengths: easy to analyse, lends itself to statistical analysis, objective and less affected by bias
Weaknesses: narrow in scope, poor external validity

Question 39

What is one strength and one weakness of primary data?

Answer 39

Strength: specifically targets subject of investigation
Weakness: requires time and effort on the part of the researcher

Question 40

What are some strengths and weaknesses of secondary data?

Answer 40

Strength: inexpensive, easily accessible, little effort required
Weaknesses: variable quality and accuracy, may not precisely fit the subject of investigation

Question 41

Evaluate the use of the mean as a measure of central tendency

Answer 41

Strengths: sensitive, includes all data, representative
Weakness: easily distorted by extreme data

Question 42

Evaluate the use of the median as a measure of central tendency

Answer 42

Strengths: easy to identify, not affected by extreme data
Weaknesses: does not include all data

Question 43

Evaluate the use of the mode as a measure of central tendency

Answer 43

Strengths: easy to identify, appropriate for nominal data
Weaknesses: crude measure, does not include all data

Question 44

Evaluate the use of the range as a measure of dispersion

Answer 44

Strength: easy to calculate
Weaknesses: easily distorted by extreme data, does not consider all data, unrepresentative

Question 45

Evaluate the use of the standard deviation as a measure of dispersion

Answer 45

Strengths: precise, includes all data
Weakness: easily distorted by extreme data

Question 46

In what circumstances may we use a more stringent significance level than 5%?

Answer 46

When research may involve human cost, when there is no possibility of replication, or when the findings have significant social implications.

Question 47

What are the three main aims of peer reviews?

Answer 47

To allocate research funding, to validate the quality and relevance of research, and to suggest amendments or improvements to research.

Question 48

Explain how anonymity is an issue in peer reviews

Answer 48

Usually the ‘peer’ doing the reviewing remains anonymous to increase honesty, but a minority of peers have used this anonymity to criticise rival researchers in competition for funding.

Question 49

Explain how publication bias is an issue for peer reviews

Answer 49

Journal editors are more interested in ‘headline grabbing’ and positive results, so research that doesn’t meet this criteria may be devalued during peer review.

Question 50

Explain how peer reviews can bury ground breaking research

Answer 50

‘Peers’ are likely to criticise research which contradicts mainstream theories or their own views, slowing down the publication of new and innovative research