Psychopathology Flashcards
What is meant by an explicit social norm?
An explicit social norm is a written rule/law
What is meant by an impicit social norm?
An implicit social norm is not a written rule, but one that we tend to follow such as eating dinner with cutlery.
Give a strength using PEE on the deviation from social norms definitions. (Implicit and explicit)
Strength
P: the definition has practical applications
E: it can be used to identify people who need psychiatric help. For example, the behaviour of someone who hears voices differs from the norm, so they would be likely to be diagnosed as schizophrenic, and to recieve treatment.
E: this suggests these definitions can be used to help improve the quality of peoples lifes.
Give a limitation using PEE on the deviation from social norms definitions. (Implicit and explicit)
Limitation
P: social norms change between cultures and over time. Consequently, so do peoples conceptions of abnormality.
E: homosexuality was regarded as a mental illness until 1973, but not any more. Cross - cultured misunderstandings are common, and may contribute to e.g. High diagnosis rate of schizophrenia amongst non - white British people.
E: therefore this definition is limited as it cannot lead to a universal definition of abnormality applicable to all cultures.
Describe an individual who is failing to function adequately
An individual who is failing to function adequately and unable to continue with their normal everyday activities, such as going to work, washing or taking part in social activities, would be considered abnormal using is definition.
Explain how someone with agoraphobia may fail to function adequately
A fear of open spaces and being outside
Explain how someone with depression may fail to function adequately
May loose focus in activities and so not socialise and have limited social skills.
Who proposed the features of someone failing to function adequately?
Rosenhan and Seligman (1989)
What features did Rosenhan and Seligman propose for someone failing to function adequately?
UMPIO
Observer discomfort Unpredictability Irrationality Maladaptiveness Personal suffering and distress
What is a strength of the theory of someone who is failing to function adequately?
P: It has practical applications
E: it can be used to identify people who need psychiatric help
E: this definition can be used to help improve the quality of some people’s lives.
What is a weakness of the theory of someone who I see failing to function adequately?
P: the definition is culturally specific.
E: for example, black people are more likely to be diagnosed as having a disorder such as schizophrenia than whites because their lifestyles are less “traditional”
E: this suggests that this definition is limited because it cannot lead to a universal definition of abnormality, applicable to all cultures.
Describe what statistical infrequency is
Statistical infrequency defines abnormality as behaviour that deviates from the average, so the less the less often the behaviour occurs the more likely it is to be abnormal. Therfore majority of people are normal and a minority are abnormal
Describe standard deviation
A measure of dispersion which shows how far spread out the data is from the mean.
Strength of statistical infrequency definition
It gives a quantities measure which is objective. There is a clear cut off point as to what is and is not abnormal.
Limitation of statistical infrequency definition
Not every rare characteristic is negative for example, an IQ of over 130 is just as rare as one under 70 but therfore this is a serious limitation.
Who proposed the deviation of ideal mental health?
Jahoda
Describe deviation from ideal mental health
According to this definition we are abnormal if we do not meet the criteria for ideal mental health, thus any deviation from what is considered normal is classed as abnormal.
What are the six characteristics of ideal mental health?
ARE PSA Positive attitude towards oneself Self-actualisation Autonomy Resisting stress Accurate perception of reality Environmental mastery
What is a strength of deviation from ideal mental health?
It’s a more positive approach to abnormality than other deviations are. This is because it focuses on positive things rather than the negatives of behaviour in terms of looking at what behaviour is ideal rather than what behaviour is abnormal.
What is a weakness of deviation from ideal mental health?
The definition is culturally specific. What is ideal in one culture may not be in another.
What are the behavioural characteristics of phobias?
Panic
Avoidance
Endurance
What are the emotional characteristics of phobias?
Emotional responses
Anxiety
What are the cognitive characteristics of phobias?
Cognitive distortion
Irrational beliefs
Selective attention for phobic stimulus
What is the behaviour approach to explaining phobias?
All of our behaviour, including phobias is learnt. The two process model suggests that phobias are learnt through classical conditioning and maintained by operant conditioning
What is classical conditioning?
Classical conditioning is learning to associate something that we initially have no fear of (neutral stimulus) with something that already naturally leads to a fear response (unconditioned stimulus)
What is operant conditioning?
Operant conditioning explains how phobias can be maintained once they have been learnt via classical conditioning. As classical conditioning does not explain how the phobia is maintained after initiation.
Before conditioning
Nerve being hit (UCS) = pain (UCR)
Drill (NS) = no response
During conditioning
Nerve being hit (UCS) = pain (UCR)
Drill (NS) = no response
After conditioning
Drill (CS) = pain (CR)
Example of operant conditioning
E.g. Fear of dentist
Having already developed a fear of the drill at the dentist, an individual will then avoid this by no longer going to the dentist. This is reinforcing as by avoiding the dentist the individual will then avoid this by no longer going to the dentist. This is reinforced as by avoiding the dentist the individual is not experiencing the fear of the dentist. The individual will continue to carry out this behaviour as long as it removes the fear.
A strength of the behavioural approach to explaining phobias
There is research evidence to support initiation via classical conditioning. Watson and Rayner demonstrate that a phobia can be taught through a classical condition such as the bang associated with the animal (rat)
A limitation of the behavioural approach to explaining phobias
It ignores the role that evolution plays in phobias.
What is meant by systematic desensitisation (SD)?
SD is based on the idea that phobias are learnt via classical conditioning, therefore as they can also be ‘unlearnt’.
What is counter conditioning?
The process of Systematic desensitisation is that over a period of time the conditioned fear response to the continued stimulus changes to a learnt response of relaxation. This is called counter conditioning because it’s impossible to feel fear and relaxation at the same time.
What is reciprocal inhibition?
A suggestion that relaxation prevents fear.
Systematic desensitisation occurs in what 3 stages?
Anxiety hierarchy
Relaxation
Exposure
Explain anxiety hierarchy
This is a range of scenarios involving the phobic stimulus starting at least fearful up to the most feared situation.
Explain exposure
This can either be in vivo ( actually being put in the situation) or in vitro (which is imaging the scenario). Avoidance is prevented.
Before desensitisation
Phobic stimulus (CS) = fear Relaxation techniques (UCS) = leads to relaxation (UCR)
During desensitisation
Relaxation (UCS) = relaxation
+ +
Phobic stimuli (CS) = fear
After desensitisation
Phobic stimulus (CS) = relaxation (CR)
Strength of systematic desensitisation of treating phobias
Has been shown to be effective and appropriateness
How was flooding used as a treatment of phobias?
Flooding aims to replace the feelings of fear with feeling of relaxation. However, during flooding rather than gradually exposing the individual to the feared stimuli, the individual is exposed to it one long session and sometimes this is enough to cure a phobia.
Before flooding
Phobic stimulus dog (CS) = fear (CR) Being bitten (UCS) = fear (UCR)
During flooding
Relaxation (UCS) = relaxation (UCR)
+ +
Phobic stimuli dog (CS) = fear (CR)
After flooding
Phobic stimuli dog (CS) = relaxation (CR)
A strength of evaluating the effectiveness of flooding
It is effective as it can be used to treat a wide range of phobias. For example, flooding can be quite traumatic, virtual reality may be a suitable balance between imagination and actual exposure.
What did Rothbaum discover?
Rothbaum et al (2002) found that virtual reality exposure and standard flooding were both more effective for treating flying phobia than being on a waiting list for treatment (a control group).
A strength of evaluating the appropriatenssso flooding
It’s appropriate because it’s cost effective. This is because it isn’t quick, it only takes one session so the person will be free of their symptoms quicker.
What are the behavioural characteristics of depression?
Activity level
Sleep and eating behaviour
Aggression and self harm
What are the emotional characteristics of depression?
Lowered mood
Anger
Lowered self-esteem
What are the cognitive characteristics of depression?
Absolutist thinking
Poor concentration
Attending to and dwelling on the negative
What is the cognitive approach to explaining depression?
The key assumption of the cognitive approach is that our thoughts influence our emotions, which influence our behaviour.
Beck’s negative triad schemas
Beck believed that people became depressed because the world is seen negatively through negative schemas . These schemas dominate thinking and are triggered whenever individuals are in situations that are similar to those in which negative schemas are learned.
Negative views about the world = negative views about the future = negative views about oneself
What are the cognitive errors in the cognitive approach to explaining depression?
Catastrophizing All or nothing Over generalisation Selective abstraction Global judgement
Explain the cognitive biases to explaining depression
Negative schemas lead to cognitive biases and are reinforced by cognitive biases. Whenever we are faced with stressful or challenging situation people with negative schemas lead to faulty logic and flawed interpretations of events.
Explain Ellis’s ABC model
Ellis believed that those who are suffering from depression mistakenly blame external or their unhappiness and the way in which they interpret these events is what leads to depressive thoughts
Describe the steps in the ABC model
A- activating event
B- beliefs
C- consequences
What is the ‘activating event’ in Ellis’s ABC model?
This refers to an event in the environment. These events are everyday obstacles and difficulties that everyone is forced to deal with when interacting with the world.
What are the ‘beliefs’ in Ellis’s ABC model?
Your belief about the situation can be rational or irrational. Irrational thoughts may include that the event is a major disaster or that we must always be perfect.
What are the ‘consequences’ in Ellis’s ABC model?
This is the consequence, it is the emotional response tot he belief. A rational belief leads to healthy emotions. Whereas an irrational belief can lead to unhealthy emotions. E.g. Depression
What is mustabatory thinking?
Mustabatory thinking: the source of irrational thinking is seen a strength mustabatory thinking, thinking that certain ideas or assumptions MUST be true in order for an individual to be happy.
What is a strength of the cognitive approach to explaining depression?
One strength is there is practical applications that are used based on Beck’s and Ellis’s ideas.
What is a weakness of the cognitive approach to explaining depression?
One weakness of the cognitive model is that the patient is seen as responsible for their psychological disorder
What is the aim of cognitive behavioural therapy?
Aim: CBT is to challenge irrational thoughts within the cognitive triad ad replace them with more realistic appraisals.
How can you identify irrational thoughts?
Identifying Irrational thoughts:
The client is encouraged to record their automatic negative thoughts and thoughts of how they may challenge these. This will include asking them questions to try to identify what is triggering negative thoughts.
What is the behavioural element in Beck’s cognitive therapy?
Part of the therapy aims to alter dysfunctional behaviours that are contributing to or maintaining the depression. This is done by encouraging patients to identify activities they used to enjoy and to work to overcome cognitive obstacles in carrying them out.
How does Ellis’s ABC model challenge irrational thoughts?
Ellis’s ABC model was extended to include D and E.
D stands for dispute and E stands for effect.
Dispute refers to having an argument which challenges that irrational thinking with the aim of breaking the link between events no feeling of depression (A and C)
What are the behavioural characteristics of obsessive compulsive disorder?
The obsessions create such anxiety that the ability to perform everyday tasks is severely hindered.
What are the emotional characteristics of obsessive compulsive disorder?
The compulsions can bring some temporary relief from anxiety but the anxiety from the obsessions soon returns.
What are the cognitive characteristics of obsessive compulsive disorder?
Obsessions are not everyday worries, they are uncontrollable and create anxiety.
Explain the biological approach to explaining OCD
The key assumption of the biological approach is that our thoughts and behaviours are a result of physiological internal process and are innate within us.
What are the genetic explanations to explaining OCD?
The genetic explanation suggests that the onset of OCD is a result of our genetic make-up that we are born with. We receive 50% of our genes from our mother and 50% from our farther.
The biological approach to explaining OCD using twin and family studies.
Research has traditionally used twin ad family studies to compare whether OCD seems to have s genetic link for example Lewis.
Observed with his OCD patients
37% had parents with OCD
21% had siblings with OCD
What did Miguel et al do?
Miguel et al used monozygotic (identical twins) and dizygotic (non-identical twin)
The biological approach to explaining OCD using specific genes
COMT gene:
Involved in the production of the neurotransmitter dopamine.
SERT gene:
Affects the transmission of serotonin leading to lower levels in the brain.
What did Tukel et al find in explaining specific genes?
Tukel et al found one form of the COMT gene to be more common in OCD patients than people without the disorder.
What did Bengel et al find in explaining specific genes?
Bengel et al compared 75 Caucasian patients with OCD to 397 ethnically matched individuals who did not have OCD.
What do epigentics do?
These outside (epigentic) factors can affect the way the gene ‘expresses’ itself, for example it may release more or less protein and this can affect our behaviour (and physical traits)
What are the neural explanation?
Neural explanations focus on what is happening in the brain. This can Ben influenced by genetics and DNA, by brain damage, infection and the environment (epigenetics) can also affect neural functioning.
What can affect the levels of neurotransmitters in the brain?
Your genetic makeup can affect the levels of neurotransmitters in the brain.
Explain what neurotransmitters do.
Neurotransmitters pass information (messages) from one neurone to another.
What are two key transmitters which appear to play a role in OCD?
Serotonin and dopamine
What is serotonin?
This brain chemical regulates a number of the body’s functions including mood, anxiety, memory and sleep.
What are low levels of serotonin associated with?
Low levels of serotonin are associated with the anxiety side of OCD due to obsessive thoughts.
What is dopamine?
The brain chemical dopamine is linked to experiencing motivation, rewards and compulsions. When a pleasurable experience occurs, increased dopamine leads to feelings of pleasure.
What happens when there is increased dopamine?
When a pleasurable experience occurs, increased dopamine leads to feelings of pleasure.
What area of the brain has been implicated in OCD?
Orbitofrontal cortex (OFC)
Where s the OFC send signals to and what occurs these signals?
The OFC sends signals to the thalamus about things that are worrying.
If a part of the basal ganglia (caudate nucleus) is damaged what fails to work?
It fails to stop minor worry signals and the thalamus is alerted.
What have PET scans shown when a sufferer of OCD has active symptoms?
There is a heightened activity in the OFC
What is a strength of the biological approach to explaining OCD?
There is research evidence to support the link between biology and OCD.
What did Nestadt et al do?
Research evidence to support the link between OCD and biology -
Reviewed previous twin studies and found that 68% of identical twins shared OCD as opposed to 31% of non-identical twins. This suggest some a genetic influence on OCD.
What is a weakness of the biological approach to explaining OCD?
Research I see correlational, for example, we only test for a genetic link after OCD has developed
What is a reductionist?
A theory which explains complex human behaviour by reducing it down to one single component
What has been found to be effective at treating OCD?
SSRIs were originally designed as a treatment for depression, but have also been found to be effective at treating OCD.
What is the most common SSRI used in adults?
Fluoxetine (Prozac)
What has fluoxetine (prozac) been found to do?
It works by increasing the levels of serotonin in the synapse and they usually do not take effect on OCD symptoms until 3-4 months after taking them.
How do SSRIs work?
- presynaptic cell sends information via a synapse
- by sending information, neurotransmitters are relseased into the gap
- the receptors on the surface of the postsynaptic cell recongnises these neurotransmitters and passes on the ‘message’
What is a synapse?
A gap between cells
Why might SSRIs not work?
Different drugs work differently for different people. Therfore is SSRIs do not work, other medications will be tried.
Effectiveness of the biological approach to treating OCD is…
A strength of the biological approach for treating OCD is that there is research to suggest it is effective.
What did soomro et al show for the biological approach to treating OCD?
Soomro et al has shown it’s effective in the biological approach to treating OCD. 70% of people will improve taking SSRIs, the remaining 30% alternative drug treatments or combinations of drugs and treatments will be effective for some.
What is the appropriateness for the biological approach to treating OCD?
One strength of drug therapy for treating OCD is that it can be seen as appropriate because it is quick and easy to administer.
