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Psychology A Level > Psychopathology > Flashcards

Psychopathology Flashcards

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1
Q

What the 4 definitions for defining abnormality

A
  • Statistical infrequency
  • Deviation from social norms
  • Failure to function adequately
  • Deviation from ideal mental health
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2
Q

What are the two classification systems?

A
  • ICD 10

- DSM V

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3
Q

What is the statistical infrequency definition?

A

Under this definiton, a person’s trait, thinking or behaviour is classified as abnormal if it is rare or statistically unusual. Under this definition, it is necessary to be clear about how rare a trait or behaviour needs to be (cut off point) before we class it as abnormal

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4
Q

What is the deviation from social norms definition?

A

Under this definition, a person’s thinking or behaviour is classified as abnormal if it violates the unwritten rules about what is expected or acceptable behaviour in a particular social group
Their behaviour may:
-Be incomprehensible to other
-Make others feel threatened or uncomfortable

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5
Q

What is it necessary to consider with the deviation from social norms definition?

A
  • The degree to which a norm is violated
  • The importance of that norm
  • The value attached by the social group to different sorts of violation
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6
Q

What is the failure to function adequately definition?

A

Under this definition, a person is considered abnormal if they are unable to cope with the demands of everyday life. They may be unable to perform the behaviours necessary for day-to-day living e.g. self-care, hold down a job, interact meaningfully with others, make themselves understood

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7
Q

What characteristics did Rosehan and Seligman suggest for failure to function adequately?

A
  • Suffering
  • Maladaptiveness
  • Vividness and unconventionality
  • Unpredictability and loss of control
  • Irrationality/incomprehensibility
  • Causes observed discomfort
  • Violates moral/social standards
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8
Q

What is the deviation from ideal mental health definition?

A

Under this definition, rather than defining what is abnormal, we define what is ideal and anything that deviates from this is regarded as abnormal

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9
Q

What criteria did Jahoda propose as ideal mental health?

A
  • A positive view of the self
  • Resistance to stress
  • Capability for growth and development
  • Autonomy and independence
  • Accurate perception of reality
  • Positive friendships and relationships
  • Environmental mastery- able to meet the varying demands of day-to-day situations
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10
Q

State three evaluation points for statistical infrequency

A

✓ provides quantitative data
X some abnormal/ statistically rare behaviour is desirable e.g. high IQ
X the cut-off point is subjectively determined
X sometimes statistical infrequency is inappropriate e.g. in the case of intellectual disability

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11
Q

State three evaluation points for deviation from social norms

A

✓ Distinguishes between desirable and undesirable behaviour and takes into account the effect that behaviour has on others
X Social norms vary with time. Something like homosexuality would have been socially unacceptable 50 years ago but not abnormal now
X In many cases there is not a clear line what is abnormal deviation and what is just eccentricity- i.e. context and degree needs to be considered

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12
Q

State three evaluation points for failure to function adequately

A

✓ Recognises the subjective experience of the patient and it is relatively easy to judge based on criteria
X Who should decide whether someone is not functioning adequately. Sometimes the individual is content with the situation
X Some ‘dysfunctional’ behaviour can actually be adaptive and functional for the individual e.g. eating disorders may lead to wanted attention

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13
Q

State three evaluation points for deviation from ideal mental health

A

✓ It focuses on the positives rather than the negatives and focuses on what is desirable rather than what is undesirable
X Unrealistic criteria+ hard to measure- how many need to be lacking before someone is judged as abnormal
X It is unlikely we can diagnose mental abnormality in the same way as physical
X Self-actualisation and personal autonomy are only really relevant to Western, individualistic cultures (not collectivist)

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14
Q

What is cultural relativism?

A

Refers to the extent to which each definition can be applied to different cultures

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15
Q

How can cultural relativism be applied to statistical infrequency?

A

What is considered rare in one culture may not be rare in another. For example eating shark/dog is rare in our culture but not in China

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16
Q

How can cultural relativism be applied to deviation from social norms?

A

Unwritten rules in one culture may not be the same in another culture

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17
Q

How can cultural relativism be applied to failure to function adequately?

A

What one culture considers to be ‘functioning adequately’ may not apply to other cultures. For example standards of personal grooming or daily routine are not the same in other culture, e.g. rural Africa

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18
Q

What is depression?

A

A mood disorder where an individual feels sad and/or lacks interest in their usual activities. Further characteristics include irrational, negative thoughts, raised or lowered activity levels and difficulties with concentration, sleep and eating

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19
Q

What is Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)?

A

An anxiety disorder where anxiety arises from both obsessions (persistent thoughts) and compulsions (behaviours that are repeated over and over again). Compulsions are a response to obsessions and the person believes the compulsions will reduce anxiety

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20
Q

What are Phobias?

A

A group of mental disorders characterised by high levels of anxiety in response to a particular stimulus or a group of stimuli. The anxiety interferes with normal living.

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21
Q

What are the emotional characteristics of phobias?

A
  • Persistent, excessive and unreasonable fear
  • Feelings of anxiety and panic
  • Cued by the presence of a particular object or situation
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22
Q

What are the behavioural characteristics of phobias?

A
  • Avoidance

- Freeze/faint

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23
Q

What are the cognitive characteristics of phobias?

A
  • Irrational nature of the person’s thinking
  • Resistance to rational arguments
  • The person recognises that their fear is excessive or unreasonable
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24
Q

What are the emotional characteristics of depression?

A
  • Sadness
  • Feeling empty
  • Feeling of worthlessness
  • Loss of interest in usual hobbies
  • Anger
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25
Q

What are the behavioural characteristics of depression?

A
  • Reduced or increased activity level
  • Sleeping more/less
  • Reduced or increased appetite
26
Q

What are the cognitive characteristics of depression?

A
  • Negative self-concept

- Negative view of the world

27
Q

What are the emotional characteristics of OCD?

A
  • Anxiety
  • Distress
  • Embarrasment, shame
  • Disgust
28
Q

What are the behavioural characteristics of OCD?

A
  • Compulsive behaviours

- Compelled to perform these actions

29
Q

What are the cognitive characteristics of OCD?

A
  • Obsessions (recurrent, intrusive thoughts, ideas, doubts, impulses or images)
  • The person recognises the compulsions are excessive or unreasonable
30
Q

What is the two-process model?

A
  • Classical conditioning explains the initiation of a phobia, when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned fear response
  • Operant conditioning explains maintenance. The source of fear is avoided (negative reinforcement) which makes us feel calm (positive reinforcement)
31
Q

Give one strength and one weakness of the two process model

A

Strength- Importance of classical conditioning-Sue found that people often remember a key event that prompted the phobia however not everyone who has a phobia can recall such an incident
Weakness- Diathesis-stress model may be a better explanation i.e. that we have varying biological predispositions that are triggered by different environmental factors

32
Q

What is the social learning theory?

A
  • Phobias are acquired through modelling e.g. parent is seen to be afraid of spiders
  • Behaviour may appear to be rewarding (vicarious reinforcement)
  • Mediating factors
33
Q

What does ARRM stand for?

A
  • Attention
  • Retention
  • Reproduction
  • Motivation
34
Q

Give four evaluation points for social learning theory

A
  • Bandura found evidence- children acquired fear response having seen adult faking shock when they heard buzzer (vicarious reinforcement)
  • However there is evidence that animals and possibly humans are preprogrammed to have a fear response to strangers or new situations
  • Diathesis streess
  • Ignores biological and cognitive approach
35
Q

Describe systematic desentisation

A
  • Uses counterconditioning
  • Desentisation hierachy created
  • Based on recirpocal inhibition (we cannot be relaxed and anxious simultaneously)
  • Progressive relaxation techniques are taught as therapist and phobic work through imagined (usually) scenarios
36
Q

What is the difference between in vitro and in vivo?

A

In vitro-imagined

In vivo- real life

37
Q

Evaluate systematic desensitisation

A
  • McGraph reported 75% success
  • In vivo techniques work better than in vitro
  • Individual differences in terms of person and phobia
  • Fairly quick
  • No side effects
  • Requires some effort
38
Q

What is flooding?

A
  • Involves single exposure to the feared situation
  • Phobic taught relaxation technique
  • Phobic exposure to phobic stimulus in reality of virtual reality for 2-3 hours
  • Based on the principle that the stress response is difficult to physically maintain for long periods of time
39
Q

Evaluate flooding

A
  • Craske concluded that SD and flooding were equally effective
  • Quick
  • Possible risk of fear response becoming worse
  • Flooding and SD can be self administered so could, with practice, be applied outside of a therapy situation
  • Combined approach may work e.g. drugs and SD
  • Ethics
40
Q

What are the names of the two genes that are thought to have a link with OCD?

A
  • COMPT gene

- SERT gene

41
Q

What is the function of the COMPT gene?

A

Regulating the neurotransmitter dopamine. One variation of the COMPT gene results in high levels of dopamine and is more common in patients with OCD

42
Q

What is the function of the SERT gene?

A

Linked with the neutrotransmitter serotonin and affects the transport of serotonin, causing lower levels of serotonin which is also associated with OCD and depression

43
Q

How does serotonin play a role in OCD?

A

Serotonin regulates mood and lower levels of serotonin are associated with mood disorders such as depression and OCD. Further support for the role of serotonin in OC comes from research examining anti-depressants which have found that drugs which increase the level of serotonin are effective in treating patients with OCD

44
Q

How does dopamine play a role in OCD?

A

Higher levels of dopamine are associated with some of the symptoms of OCD like the compulsive behaviours

45
Q

What are the two brain regions that have been implicated in OCD?

A

Basal ganglia and orbitofrontal cortex

46
Q

What is the basal ganglia and what is its link with OCD?

A

The basal ganglia is a brain structure involved in multiple processes, including the coordination of movements. Patients who suffer head injury in this region develop OCD-like symptoms. Max et al found that when the basal ganglia is disconnected from the frontal cortex during surgery, OCD-like symptoms are removed, which further supports the role of the basal ganglia in OCD

47
Q

What is the orbitofrontal cortex and what is its link with OCD?

A

This region converts sensory information into thoughts. PET scans have found higher levels of activity in the orbitofrontal cortex of OCD patients. This may be increasing the conversion of sensory information to actions which leads to compulsions

48
Q

Evaluate the biological explanation of OCD

A

Strength- Family studies. Lewis examined patients with OCD and found that 37% of the patients with OCD had parents and 21% had siblings who suffered. Nestadt et al conducted a review of twin studies and found that 68% of identical twins and 31% of non identical twins experience OCD which shows a very strong genetic component

Strength- support for neural explanations. Anti-depressants typically work by increasing levels of serotonin. These drugs are effective in treating OCD so provide support for a neural explanation of OCD

Weakness- The biological explanation ignores other factors. The biological approach does not take into account cognitions and learning and some psychologists suggest OCD is learned through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning

49
Q

What are the two anti-depressants used to treat OCD?

A

SSRI’s and tricyclics

50
Q

What are SSRI’s?

A

SSRI’s (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) increase levels of serotonin which helps to regulate mood and anxiety and helps the orbitofrontal cortex to function at more normal levels. SSRI’s work by inhibiting the re-absorption of serotonin at the receptor cells on the receiving neuron, increasing stimulation to the receiving neuron

51
Q

What are tricyclics?

A

Tricyclics block the transporter mechanism that reabsorbs both serotonin and noradrenaline into the pre-synaptic cells. As a result more of these neurotransmitters are left in the synapse prolonging their activity and easing transmission.

52
Q

What are benzodiazepines (BZs)?

A

BZ’s are anti-anxiety drugs. They slow down the activity of the CNS by enhancing the activity of the neurotransmitter GABA. GABA increases the flow of chloride ions which make it harder to be stimulated by other neurotransmitters and so slow down the activity

53
Q

State the research support for the effectiveness of drug therapy

A

Soomro et al reviewed 17 studies and found the use of SSRI’s to be more effective than placebos at reducing the symptoms of OCD
HOWEVER many of these studies were short term and little long-term data exists

54
Q

What are the benefits of drug therapy?

A
  • Easy to use
  • Little time and effort is required
  • Cheaper for the health service
55
Q

What are the weaknesses of drug therapy?

A
  • Side effects e.g. headaches, nausea, insomnia etc.
  • Addiction
  • Treats the symptoms not the cause
56
Q

What is Beck’s negative triad?

A
  • Beck believed depression is negative thinking and lack of control
  • Negative schemas acquired in childhood are activated in later life, leading to cognitive biases e.g. overgeneralisation from the event

The negative triad- negative schemas annd cognitive biases lead to a pessimistic and irrational view of:

  • The self
  • The world
  • The future
57
Q

What is Ellis’ ABC model?

A

-Ellis identified beliefs as the basis of depression

A- Activation event
B- rational or irrational belief
C- consequence

58
Q

What is musturbatory thinking?

A

-The irrational belief that certain things MUST be true for an individual to be happy

59
Q

Evaluate cognitive approaches to explaining depression

A
  • Reseach evidence- Bates found that depressed patients given negative automatic thought statements became increasingly depressed and Krantz found that depressed patients made more errors in logic when interpreting written material. Both of these studies suggest errors in the processing of thoughts may lead to depression
  • Puts responsibility on the patient and may ignore situational factors
  • Successful therapies e.g. CBT
  • Blames the patient rather than situational factors- person centered
  • Presumes thoughts dictate actions
  • Time/cost/ effort
  • Ignores other approaches e.g. biological
  • Can be difficult to ‘measure thoughts’
  • Diathesis stress may be better approach
60
Q

What is cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)?

A

Works by challenging irrational thoughts and replacing them with more effective and rational ones. it focuses on maladaptive thoughts and beliefs which then change behaviour in reponse to those thoughts and beliefs. This is done by extending Ellis’ ABC model to D, E and F where D is disputing, E is effects of disputing and F is feelings Clients are given homework in order to put their new rational beliefs into practice.

61
Q

What are the advantages of CBT?

A
  • Ellis claimed a 90% success rate for REBT, taking an average of 27 sessions to complete the treatment.
  • Especially effective when used in combination with drug therapy
  • Has benefits beyond the treatment of depression
62
Q

What are the disadvantages of CBT?

A
  • The therapy was not always effective
  • Not quick
  • Requires considerable effort from the patient
  • Less suitable for people with high levels of irrational thoughts that are rigid and resistant to change
  • Less suitable in situations where high levels of stress in the individual reflect realistic stressors in the person’s life that therapy cannot resolve

Psychology A Level (11 decks)

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