Issues and Debates Flashcards
1
Q
What is gender bias?
A
The differential treatment or representation of men and women based on stereotypes rather than real differences
2
Q
What are some of the implications of gender bias on research?
A
- May only select participants of one gender
- Limited perspective
- Enforces stereotypes
- Difficulty generalising (population validity)
- Tasks may be stereotyped
- Experiences of researcher may influence study
3
Q
What is androcentrism?
A
- Centered or focused on men, often to the neglect or exclusion of women
- Theories tend to represent a male-oriented view
- Studies are predominantly carried out on males and then considered valid for both genders
4
Q
What are the two types of gender bias?
A
- Alpha bias
- Beta bias
5
Q
What is alpha bias?
A
When differences between males and females are exaggerated, which leads to one gender being devalued (female)
6
Q
What is beta bias?
A
When a study/theory ignores or minimises gender differences
7
Q
Why does beta bias occur?
A
It is believed that:
- Behaviour of women does not matter
- It would be unfair to put women in this situation
- There would not be any gender differences so there’s no need to use both genders
8
Q
Describe the procedure of Kohlberg’s study of moral development
A
- Studied the answers of children of different ages to discover the ways in which moral reasoning changed as people grew older
- The sample comprised of 72 boys aged 10-16
- 58 boys were followed up at three-yearly intervals until the age of 20
- Each boy was given a 2 hour interview based on ten dilemmas
9
Q
What did Kohlberg find?
A
- Kohlberg found that the reasons behind moral choices tended to change as the children got older
- He identified three levels of moral reasoning and each new stage replaces the earlier stage
10
Q
Why was Kohlberg’s study an example of beta bias?
A
He only studied males and then generalised to both
11
Q
What is the evidence for an alpha bias in Kohlberg’s research?
A
The dilemmas had a male orientation of justice rather than care. Kohlberg found women to be less morally developed which is a classic outcome of alpha bias.
12
Q
What is universality?
A
The belief that all humans are alike, so what is true for one person may be true of everyone
13
Q
What is universality in terms of gender bias?
A
Recognizing differences between genders but not assuming that one gender is superior over another
14
Q
Give three points to evaluate gender bias.
A
ADVANTAGE: Feminist psychology- has emerged to argue that stereotypes make a greater contribution to perceived differences than real sex differences. It aims to change research so that women are given more support and opportunities in areas they are seen as inferior in.
DISADVANTAGE: Bias in research methods- If studies are gender biased then any differences found may just be due to biased methods. Rosenthal found that male experimenters tended to be more friendly to female participants and they ended up performing better than the male participants
ADVANTAGE: Reverse alpha bias- can be used to develop theories that emphasise the value of women. Feminist research has shown that women are more attentive, flexible and organised. This challenges gender stereotypes and changes people’s preconceptions
15
Q
What is culture bias?
A
The act of interpreting and judging behaviour and psychological characteristics of one culture by holding them to the standards of your own
16
Q
How can culture bias occur in psychology?
A
- In the theories developed in one culture which are applied inappropriately
- Through biased research methods
17
Q
What is an etic approach?
A
An etic approach looks at behaviour from outside of a given culture and attempts to describe those behaviours as universal
18
Q
What can an etic approach lead to?
A
Alpha or beta bias
19
Q
What is an emic approach?
A
An emic approach functions from within or inside certain cultures and identifies behaviours that are specific to that culture
20
Q
What is the problem with taking an emic approach?
A
You cannot generalise
21
Q
What kind of approach does psychology often impose?
A
Berry argued that psychology imposes an etic approach because it argues that theories, models and concepts are universal when they actually came about through emic research
22
Q
What is ethnocentrism?
A
Seeing things from the perspective of ourselves and our social group. Evaluating other groups of people using the standards and customs of one’s own culture
23
Q
How is ethnocentrism an example of alpha bias?
A
One’s own culture is considered to be different and better so other cultures are devalued
e.g. attachment types
24
Q
How is ethnocentrism an example of beta bias?
A
Can lead to beta bias if psychologists believe their world view is the only view
e.g. American IQ tests
25
What is cultural relativism?
Cultural relativism suggests that all cultures are worthy of respect and it is important to understand each culture when studying it
26
How can cultural relativism result in alpha bias?
When real differences are exaggerated to the point where things that are the same are overlooked
e.g. in Papua new Guinea Margaret Mead initially found significant gender differences in culture but later found universals such as men were more aggressive
27
How can cultural relativism result in beta bias?
When rules that are assumed to be universal are inaccurately applied to other cultures
e.g. in terms of mental illness, what may be statistically uncommon in one culture may be common in another and this can lead to misdiagnosis.
28
Give three points to evaluate cultural bias
ADVANTAGE: Indigenous psychologies- e.g. Afrocentrism can be created to express the values of other cultures which allows for those cultures to be studied fairly and accurately. This stops researchers imposing European values on other cultures
DISADVANTAGE: Consequences of cultural bias- in the First World War an IQ test was devised centered on American/ Western culture and it was found that African Americans and European immigrants did much worse. This led to stereotypes and the formation of many negative opinions towards certain groups
ADVANTAGE: Worldwide psychology community- Now researchers can travel more and develop an understanding of different cultures. Also, academics can meet and discuss ideas at international conferences. This reduces ethnocentrism
29
What is determinism?
The idea that behaviour is controlled by external or internal forces acting upon the individual. Determinism means that all behaviour has theoretically identifiable causes and therefore can be predicted
30
What is biological determinism?
- Believes genetics and brain structure shape behaviour
- Physiological and neurological processes aren't under our conscious control e.g. fight or flight
- The effects of hormones affect our behaviour e.g. testosterone leads to more aggressive behaviour
- Linked to the biological approach
31
What is environmental determinism?
- Our behaviour has been shaped by the environment and role models
- All behaviour is a result of conditioning
- We feel that we have free will because of the reinforcement that we have experienced
- Linked to the behavioural approach and social learning
32
What is psychic determinism?
- Key researcher is Freud
- Free will is an illusion
- Behaviour is driven by a mix of innate drives and early experience
- Higher biological drive and innate instincts
- Behaviour is determined by unconscious conflicts
- There's no accidents
- Linked to the psychodynamic approach
33
What is scientific determinism?
- Causal explanations for behaviour
- Independent variable is manipulated to determine the cause of the dependent variable
- Lab studies determine a cause and effect
- Linked to lab, field, natural, quasi experiments
34
What is Free Will?
- The idea that each individual has the power to make choices about their behaviour
- Free will separates what is the intention of an individual from what has been created by other causes
- This means we are 'self-determining' and free from the causal influences of the past
35
What is soft determinism?
The belief that behaviour is determined to an extent, but in the absence of compulsion people have a degree of choice
36
What is hard determinism?
It suggests that all human behaviour has a cause, and, in principle. it should be possible to identify and describe the causes
37
How does the free will debate support the humanistic approach?
- Maslow and Rogers argued that you cannot achieve self-development and self-actualisation without self-determination
- Rogers claimed that you cannot change your behaviour as long as you remain controlled by external/internal factors
- IT IS ONLY WHEN AN INDIVIDUAL TAKES FULL RESPONSIBILITY (I.E. FREE WILL) THEY CAN ACHIEVE PERSONAL GROWTH
38
What is moral responsibility?
Moral responsibility means that the individual is in charge of their own actions. It assumes that adults are accountable for their actions regardless of innate factors or the influence of early experience
39
What issues are raised when justifying moral responsibility to the free will debate?
It has been scientifically proven that your genetics and brain structure can affect behaviour- and this has important applications in the criminal justice system and should not be disregarded.
40
Give one evaluation point for each:
- Biological determinism
- Environmental determinism
- Scientific determinism
BIOLOGICAL: Due to the fact that identical twin studies show a concordance rate of 80% rather than 100% shows that genes do not entirely determine behaviour. This means that we cannot fully establish cause and effect and environmental factors must account for the other 20%
ENVIRONMENTAL: The high concordance rates found in twin and family studies show that external factors do not contribute solely to behaviour. This means that genetics must be involved
SCIENTIFIC: There is never total determinism and changes occur due to probability. Deterministic arguments oversimplify behaviour. This means that we can't predict and generalise behaviour, which questions the validity of research and means we cannot confidently establish cause and effect
41
Describe the emphasis on causal explanations in determinism
- Determinism is consistent with the aims and methods of sciences because it suggests behaviour obeys laws
- We can therefore make consistent predictions and generalisations
- Determinism adheres to the principles of cause and effect which can lead to effective treatment
42
Give four limitations of the free will debate
- Neurological evidence demonstrates that people have neurological changes in motor areas of the brain 10 seconds before they realise they decided to point in a particular direction which suggests some behaviours are pre-determined
- Your choices may still be determined by experiences rather than actual free will e.g. agreeing with gay rights may be a result of acceptance determined by social changes
- BF Skinner argued that free will was just an illusion, as our choices are still determined by previous reinforcement
- It is very difficult to test the notion of free will
43
Give two supporting statements for the free will debate
- Has high face validity e.g. research has found that people with high internal locus of control are at lower risk of depression
- The idea of free will and self-determination may be culturally relative i.e. some cultures value behaviour based upon the needs of the group
44
What is nature?
Suggests behaviour is seen as a product of innate (biological or genetic) factors
45
What is nurture?
Suggests behaviour is a product of environmental factors
46
What is the nature-nurture debate?
The nature-nurture debate involves the degree to which our behaviour is innate and a consequence of heredity or what happens in the environment (learning). It is widely accepted that we are made up of biological processes and that our genetics play a heavy influence (nature) but we must also acknowledge the influence of our interactions with the environment (nurture)
47
What have family, adoption and twin (FAT) studies shown about the influence of genetics?
The closer two individuals are genetically, the more likely they are to develop the same behaviours. For example, concordance rates for schizophrenia are 40% for monozygotic (identical) twins and 7% for dizygotic (non identical) twins
48
How do evolutionary explanations support the nature perspective?
- Advantageous characteristics will be naturally selected and thus passed down to subsequent generations through genes
- Bowlby found that attachment was adaptive because it ensured survival and promoted close relationships which would lead to successful reproduction
- Therefore attachment was naturally selected
49
How is behaviourism evidence for the nurture side of the debate?
- Behaviourism assumes all behaviour can be explained in terms of experience and learning
- B.F. Skinner used classical and operant conditioning
- E.g. in classical conditioning the new born baby associates food with the mother and in operant conditioning the food acts as a reward because it is reducing hunger
50
How is the social learning theory (SLT) evidence for the nurture side of the debate?
- Bandura proposed that behaviour is acquired through learning by vicarious reinforcement
- The urge to be aggressive may be biological but the way in which someone expresses anger is learned through environmental influence
51
What is the interactionist approach?
The interactionist approach considers behaviour to be influenced by both nature and nurture
52
What is a real life application of the interactionist approach?
Health psychology explanations incorporate the idea that our behaviours are a result of biological, psychological and social processes- which is referred to as the biopsychosocial approach
53
How is the diathesis stress model support for the interactionist approach?
- A diathesis is a biological vulnerability to a behaviour or disorder such as being born with genes that predispose you to that
- However not everyone who has those genes develops the disorder and expression of the genes depends on the experience of the individual in the form of a 'stressor'
- Therefore a person's nature is only expressed under certain conditions of nurture
54
Apart from the interactionist approach/ diathesis stress, give two more evaluation points for the nature-nurture debate.
- Nature affects nurture: Genetic factors can create an infants microenvironment. E.g. a child who is more aggressive may provoke an aggressive response in others. This response becomes a part of the child's environment and affects their development. Plomin et al called this reactive gene-environment interaction
- Nurture affects nature: Maguire et al carried out a study on London taxi drivers and found that the regions of their brains associated with spacial memory was bigger than in controls. This is because their hippocampi responded to increased use. This shows that nurture can affect nature (e.g. brain structure)
55
What is holism?
Holism is the idea that any attempt to break up behaviour and experience is inappropriate as these can only be understood by analysing the person or behaviour as a whole
56
What is reductionism?
Reductionism analyses behaviour by breaking it down into its constituent parts
- It is based on the scientific principle of pasimony: that all phenomena should be explained using the most basic lowest level principles
- It is the simplest, easiest and most economical explanation.
57
State the levels of explanation from the highest (least reductionist) to lowest (most reductionist) (5)
Highest: Social/cultural- can be explained by understanding how social and cultural groups affect behaviour
Cognitive- can be explained by understanding the information processing that happens
Environmental- can be explained with reference to learning processes
Evolutionary- can be explained by reference to the evolutionary adaptations that lead to behaviour
Biological- can be explained in terms of the workings of the brain
58
How is holism reflected in humanistic and cognitive psychology?
Humanistic- humanistic psychology believes that the individual reacts as an organised whole and thus what matters most is a persons sense of a unified identify
Cognitive- Connectionist networks (neuronal) are described as holist because the network as a whole behaves differently than the individual parts
59
Why has it been argued that lower levels of reductionism may miss out on the causes of behaviour?
- Meaning of behaviour may be overlooked
- Wolpe treated a woman's fear of insects using systematic desensitisation
- However she found no improvement because the fear was not the result of conditioning but a means of expressing her marital problems
- Focusing on the behavioural level (environmental) was an error
- The dangers of focusing on lower levels of reductionism is that you may miss more appropriate levels of explanation
60
Describe a positive and negative consequence of biological reductionism
POSITIVE: The development of drug therapies have led to a considerable reduction in institutionalisation and it is also more humane because it removes blame
NEGATIVE: Success rates are variable and because it is the symptoms that are treated rather than the cause it may not have long lasting effects
61
What is experimental reductionism and what are the issues associated with it?
- Refers to the fact that behavioural approach was developed as a result of experiments with non-human animals
- Human behaviour is influenced by social context so it may be inappropriate to explain complex human behaviour using non-human animal studies
62
What is the meaning of idiographic?
Understanding behaviour through studying individual cases i.e. case studies
-Favoured by the humanistic and psychodynamic approach
63
What is the meaning of nomothetic?
Understanding behaviour through developing general laws that apply to all people
-Favoured by the biological, behavioural/SLT and cognitive approach
64
What is the idiographic approach?
- Rejects the scientific method
- Should study the individual rather than groups
- Should not generalise to others as we are all unique
- Behaviour should be understood in terms of subjective experience
- Only the individual can explain what a behaviour means
65
Evaluate the idiographic approach (3 advantages and 2 disadvantages)
Good because:
- Takes into account individual differences
- Can tailor specific treatments
- Produces rich, detailed, data which increases validity
Bad because:
- Time-consuming and expensive
- Low in population validity
66
What is the nomothetic approach?
- The main feature is similarities between people and laws governing behaviour
- Group averages are statistically analysed and predictions made
67
What are the three kinds of general laws made using a nomothetic approach?
- Classification e.g. DSM IV
- Establishing principles e.g. conformity and obedience
- Establishing dimensions e.g. IQ
68
Evaluate the nomothetic approach (4 advantages and 1 disadvantage)
Good because:
- Can establish cause and effect
- Easy, economical, quick
- Can generalise
- High in population validity
Bad because:
-Does not consider individual differences
69
What is the complementary approach (AO3)?
- Idiographic and nomothetic approaches should not be seen as conflicting and it is more helpful to see them as complementary
- The insights from an idiographic approach can shed more light on the general principles developed using the nomothetic
- Millon and Davis suggested research should start with a nomothetic approach to produce laws and then focus on idiographic understanding
70
Why is focusing on an individual level a strength?
- You can develop specific treatments which are more likely to work
- Allport argued that only by knowing the person as a person can we predict how they will behave
- Also some things such as emotions cannot be quantitively analysed
71
Is positive psychology more scientific than humanistic psychology?
Positive psychology is more scientific because it is more evidence-based
72
Why might both the idiographic and nomothetic approaches be considered time consuming?
Both approaches are based on large amounts of data which takes time.
73
What is socially sensitive research?
Any research that might have direct social consequences for the participants in the research or the group that they represent
74
Who identified the four aspects in the research process at which ethical issues with social consequence may occur?
Sieber and Stanley
75
What are the four aspects in the research process at which ethical issues with social consequence may occur?
- The research question
- Conduct of research and treatment of participants
- The institutional context
- Interpretation and application of findings
76
How can the research question create ethical issues with social consequences?
Asking a question like "Is homosexuality inherited?" may be damaging to members of a particular group by appearing to add scientific credibility to prevailing prejudice
77
How can the conduct of research and treatment of participants create ethical issues with social consequences?
The main concern is confidentiality of information- if a participant confesses to a crime should confidentiality be maintained
78
How can the institutional context create ethical issues with social consequences?
Research may be funded and managed by private institutions who may misuse the data or misunderstand the data. The media may then obtain reports of such research and misreport the findings.
79
How can the interpretation and application of findings create ethical issues with social consequences?
Research findings may be used for purposes other than the ones originally intended. For example, the development of IQ tests was used to demonstrate the inferiority of certain groups.
80
What are the 10 types of ethical issues identified?
- Privacy: an investigator may extract more information from the participants than they intended to give. Some research may lead to social policies that are an invasion of people's private lives
- Confidentiality: participants may be less willing to give out information if confidentiality is breached
- Valid methodology: in cases of poor methodology, scientists may be aware of this but the media and public may not so poor studies may shape social policy
- Deception: includes self-deception where research may lead people to form untrue stereotypes that then affects one's performance
- Informed consent: potential participants may not always comprehend what is involved in the study
- Equitable treatment: all participants should be treated in an equitable manner
- Scientific freedom: the scientist has a duty to engage in research but at the same time have an obligation not to harm participants as well as the institutions in society
- Ownership of data: some of the problems are the sponsorship of research and the public accessibility of the research.
- Values: researchers differ in their orientation towards subjective and objective approaches. Sensitive issues arise when there is a clash.
- Risk/benefit ratio: problems arise in determining risks as well as benefits
81
Evaluate ethical implications of research studies
WEAKNESS: Inadequacy of ethical guidelines- Ethical guidelines do not effectively deal with how research presents itself in society. For example, Sieber and Stanley recommended that researchers consider how their research is used by others and at present ethical guidelines do not require this.
WEAKNESS: Disadvantage to marginalised groups- Research has led to the exclusion or misrepresentation of different groups in society
WEAKNESS: Socially sensitive research should not be avoided because it is not a responsible approach to science. Avoiding controversial topics because they are controversial is an avoidance of responsibility
STRENGTH: This research has important applications. The BPS has a press centre which aims to promote evidence-based psychological research to the media.
