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Psychopathology Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the 4 methods psychologists use to justify diagnosing a psychological disorder?

A

Deviation from social norms
Statistical deviation/infrequency
Failure to function adequately
Deviation from ideal mental health

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2
Q

What is a social norm and the 2 types?

A

Expected ways of behaving in society, implicit and explicit (written e.g laws)

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3
Q

Why does the deviation from social norms definition believe you are abnormal?

A

If you deviate from explicit and implicit social norms (e.g anti-personality disorder)

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4
Q

What is the strength of deviation from social norms?

A

On the surface this seems to be a reasonable definition, you can quickly tell if someone has a mental health disorder as they normally deviate from social norms

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5
Q

What are the weaknesses of deviation from social norms? (3)

A

Cultural differences - Greece tooth fairy and roof
Overtime social norms change (homosexuality mental disorder)
Deviation from social norms could be seen as just excentric

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6
Q

Why does the statistical deviation/infrequency definition believe you are abnormal?

A

If your behavior is statistically uncommon (rare) and therefore not seen very often in society

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7
Q

What is a strength of the statistical deviation definition?

A

Real life applications and its commonly used in practice

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8
Q

What are the weaknesses of the statistical deviation definition? (2)

A

Ignores unusual characteristics that may be positive (high IQ like steven hawkins)
Some mental disorders like depression are meant to affect 20% of population and therefore would be considered ‘normal’

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9
Q

Why does failure to function adequately believe you are abnormal?

A

If someone deviates from their normal pattern of behavior and fail to function adequately

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10
Q

What does failure to function adequately focus on?

A

A persons everyday behavior

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11
Q

What is a strength of failure to function adequately?

A

Attempts to include subjective experience of the individual, tries to acknowledge the patient as difficult as it may be

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12
Q

What are the weaknesses of failure to function adequately? (2)

A

How can a psychologist make a decision about whether we can function correctly, its their OWN subjective opinion
Confuses with deviation from social norms as it could be that these everyday activities are ‘norms’ that are being broken

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13
Q

What can we use when talking about failure to function adequately?

A 
Rosenhan's and Seligmans 7 abnormal characteristics
1 - Suffering
2 - maladaptiveness
3 - unconventiality of behavior
4 - unpredictability
5 - irrationality and incomprehensibility
6 - observer discomfort
7 - violation of moral standards
S.M.U.U.I.O.V
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14
Q

What does the deviation from ideal mental health definition argue about abnormality?

A

You are abnormal if you are not psychologically healthy

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15
Q

Who can we use to talk about in deviation from ideal mental health?

A

Jahoda - JAHODA’S RAPPAS (argues this is ideal mental health)
Resistance to stress
Accurate perception of reality and realistic view of the world
Positive attitude towards yourself
Personal autonomy (independent)
Adapt to any environment
Self-actualisation of potential`

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16
Q

What is the strength of deviation from ideal mental health?

A

Comprehensive definition as it covers a broad range of criteria for mental health and why someone would seek support

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17
Q

What are the 2 weaknesses of deviation from ideal mental health?

A

Some of Jahoda’s ideas are cultural bound, different idea of mental health ideality in each culture
Unrealistically high standard for mental health - aren’t all of us abnormal as we will all suffer from at least 1 at some point?

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18
Q

What are phobias?

A

Type of anxiety disorder, intense and persistent irrational fear of an object, event or situation THE FEAR IS SEVERE ENOUGH TO INTERFERE WITH EVERYDAY LIFE

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19
Q

What are the 3 phobic groups in the DSM-5?

A

Specific phobia - object or situation
Social phobia - social situation
Agoraphobia - outside or public place

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20
Q

What are 3 behavioural characteristics of phobias?

A

Panic (in response to phobic stimulus e.g crying)
Avoidance (avoid contact with any possible phobic stimulus)
Endurance (remaining in presence of phobia with high anxiety e.g flying)

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21
Q

What are 2 emotional characteristics of phobias?

A

Anxiety (unpleasant state of high arousal)

Emotional responses are unreasonable (disproportionate)

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22
Q

What are 3 cognitive characteristics of phobias?

A

Selective attention
Irrational beliefs
Cognitive distortions (think it will hurt you)

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23
Q

What does the behavioural explanation of phobia’s state?

A

That phobias can be learned by classical conditioning and maintained by operant conditioning KNOWN AS THE TWO PROCESS MODEL

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24
Q

What does classical conditioning believe we pair together to acquire a phobia?

A

Neutral stimulus (no fear) with unconditioned stimulus (fear)

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25
Q

What is supporting evidence for the two process model explaining phobias?

A

Little albert study (able to create a phobia due to classical conditioning)

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26
Q

What is important in operant conditioning to maintain a phobia?

A

Negative reinforcement (avoiding a feared object reduces fear so is therefore reinforcing)

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27
Q

What are 2 strengths of the behavioral explanation of phobia’s?

A

Supporting evidence - Little Albert (watson and rayner)

Can explain many phobias and has lead to development of successful behavioural therapies S.D)

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28
Q

What are 3 weaknesses of the behavioral explanation of phobia’s?

A

Only focuses on behavioural aspects of phobias (not cognitive)
Explanation is incomplete, ignores evolutionary theory
Many people have phobia’s without suffering a traumatic experiance

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29
Q

What is the aim of behavioural therapies for treating phobias?

A

Reduce phobic anxiety through principle of classical conditioning so NS is paired with relaxation instead - KNOWN AS COUNTERCONDITIONING
No option for avoidance

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30
Q

What are the 2 behavioural therapies for phobias?

A

Systematic desensitisation

F|ooding

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31
Q

What is systematic desensitisation?

A

Based on un-learning the fear response, learning deep relaxation techniques when faced with fear stimulus.

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32
Q

What is systematic desensitisation based on?

A

idea of reciprocal inhibition (cannot be anxious and relaxed at same time)

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33
Q

What are the stages of systematic desensitisation?

A

Taught relaxation techniques
Gradually increase fear stimulus, creating a hierarchy
Progress up

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34
Q

What is flooding?

A

Aims to remove assosiation but with no gradual build up, assumes high levels of anxiety cannot be maintained so ‘floods’ person with main fear until body is forced to reduce fear response

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35
Q

What do you learn through flooding a phobia?

A

The phobic stimulus is not harmful KNOWN AS EXTINCTION

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36
Q

What is research evidence to support systematic desensitisation?

A

Gilroy 2003 - followed up patients treated for phobia of spiders through S.D at 3 months and 33 months, compared to a control group who had relaxation but no exposure, those treated with S.D had less fear at 33 months

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37
Q

What is research evidence to support flooding?

A

Wolpe 1960 - used flooding to remove girls phobia of being in cars by driving her around for hours until anxiety went
BAD COS NOT GENERALISABLE ONLY 1 PERSON

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38
Q

What are 3 strengths of the behavioural therapies for phobias?

A

Research evidence to support, shows they work
Flooding is more cost effective as quicker
S.D offers a patient pleasant aspects (relaxation) so is widely chosen

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39
Q

What are 3 weaknesses of the behavioural therapies for phobias?

A

Best suited to simple phobias, what about social or agoraphobia?
Flooding is very traumatic BUT NOT UNETHICAL
Treatments do not address any underlying psychological or emotional issues

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40
Q

What is depression?

A

A type of mood disorder affecting thoughts, feelings and behaviours aswell as the physical wellbeing of a person

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41
Q

What are the 4 categories of depression in the DSM-5?

A

Major depressive disorder - severe but short term
Persistent depressive disorder - long term and reoccuring
Disruptive mood dyregulation disorder - childhood temper tantrums
Premenstrual dysphoric disorder - disruption to mood prior and during menstrauation

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42
Q

What are the 3 behavioural characteristics of depression?

A

Irritable and aggressive - includes physical aggression e.g self harm
Disruption to sleep - insomnia/hypersomnia and changes to eating pattern
Reduced/increased energy levels - psycho-motor agitation

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43
Q

What are the 3 emotional characteristics of depression?

A

Lowered self esteem
Lowered mood
Experience more negative than positive emotions - could also include anger

44
Q

What are the 3 cognitive characteristics of depression?

A

Absolutist thinking - all situations are bad
Dwell on negative aspects - half empty/half full
Poor levels of concentration

45
Q

How does the cognitive explanation explain depression?

A

States our behaviours are based on our internal mental processes, if an individual focuses on negative thoughts, irrational beliefs and misinterpretation of events then this leads to depression

46
Q

What are the 2 theories to support the cognitive explanation of depression?

A

Becks negative triad

Ellis’ ABC model

47
Q

What does Beck’s negative triad believe?

A

People become depressed as the world is seen through negative schema’s which dominate thinking - maybe certain experiences in childhood - PROVIDES FRAMEWORK TO VIEW LIFE IN A PESSIMISTIC WAY

48
Q

What does Beck believe negative schema’s combine with to maintain the negative triad?

A

Cognitive distortions

49
Q

What is involved in Beck’s negative triad?

A

Negative view of yourself, world and future (triad of impairments)

50
Q

What does Ellis’ ABC model believe causes depression?

A

Irrational beliefs, it is not what happens it is how you deal with what happens (e.g loosing a job)

51
Q

What is the ABC in Ellis’ model?

A

A - activating event
B - belief (rational/irrational)
C - consquence of your belief

52
Q

What are the 2 strengths of the cognitive explanation to explaining depression?

A

The approach forms the basis for cognitive behavioural therapies - forms of CBT have developed based on Beck and Ellis’ theories
Supporting evidence - Llyod and Lishman 1975 asked depressed patients to recall pleasant/unpleasant experiances from their past they recalled more negative

53
Q

What are the 3 weaknesses of the cognitive explanation to explaining depression?

A

Beck and Ellis do not explain all aspects of depression - neither explain why some patients experiance anger
Does not distinguish between cause and effect, it could be that negative thoughts cause depression or negative thoughts are the result of depression
Other theories exist such as the biological one, depression is associated with neurotransmitters

54
Q

What is the most commonly used treatment for depression?

A

CBT (cognitive behavioural therapy)

55
Q

What does CBT not focus on?

A

Your past like other treatments, focuses on the present and getting better in the future

56
Q

What is an alternative treatment for depression?

A

SSRI (drug treatment)

57
Q

What is CBT based on?

A

Both behvaioural and cognitive techniques

58
Q

What are the 3 key assumptions and both Beck and Ellis’ CBT therapys?

A

It aims to target, challenge and change irrational beliefs
They get clients to ‘reality test’ therapy maybe in the form of homework
Behavioural activation where client is encouraged to become more active

59
Q

What is Beck’s form of CBT based on?

A

Negative triad - trying to identify negative thoughts about the self, world and future

60
Q

What will one of Becks therapists do once the negative thoughts are identified?

A

Challenge them and help the client understand why they are feeling them
REALITY TEST THEM MAYBE BY HOMEWORK OR DIARY ENTRYS

61
Q

What is the aim of CBT reality testing?

A

To provide evidence for the individual that challenge their irrational beliefs

62
Q

What is Ellis’ REBT (rational emotive behavioural therapy) based on?

A

That the beliefs we hold about an event cause us to become depressed, REBT challenges this statement in a more AGGRESSIVE way than Beck

63
Q

What does Ellis’ model extend to?

A

ABCDE model
D - dispute (challenge thoughts)
E - effect (see a more beneficial effect on thought and behaviour)

64
Q

What does Ellis’ REBT therapy involve?

A

High degree of challenge

65
Q

What did Ellis’ ABCDE model propose?

A

Different types of dispute
Empirical disputing - disputing wether there is actual evidence to support negative belief
Logical disputing - wether the negative thought logically follows from the facts

66
Q

What are the 3 strengths of the cognitive approach to treating depression? (beck and ellis)

A

Client is very actively involved
Research evidence supports (March showed that CBT was the best treatment at reducing symptoms of depression)
ABOVE particulary combined with drugs (Keller found that 55% drugs alone recovered, 52% CBT, 85% combined)

67
Q

What are the 2 weaknesses of the cognitive approach to treating depression?

A

Less effective for severe forms of depression - a person may be so depressed they can’t motivate themselves to go
Client may become dependent on therapist or non coperative

68
Q

What is OCD (obsessive compulsive disorder)?

A

Anxiety disorder where a person experiences frequent obsessional thoughts often followed by repetitive complusions

69
Q

What are obsessions?

A

Internal cognitive element of OCD

Persistent thought that causes anxiety experienced repeatedly

70
Q

What are compulsions?

A

External behavioural element of OCD

Repetitive and rigid behaviour that a person feels driven to perform to prevent/reduce anxiety

71
Q

What do you have to be able to know to be diagnosed with OCD?

A

That your thoughts are irrational (but you can’t help them)

72
Q

What is the OCD cycle?

A

Obsessive thought - anxiety - compulsive behaviour - temporary relief

73
Q

What are the 2 behavioural characteristics of OCD?

A

COMPULSIONS (2 elements) compulsions are repetitive and compulsions reduce anxiety
AVOIDANCE attempt to keep away from situations that could cause anxiety

74
Q

What are the 3 emotional characteristics of OCD?

A

ANXIETY AND DISTRESS anxiety is very unpleasant and overhwhelming, very emotional
ACCOMPANYING DEPRESSION anxiety accompanied by low mood and lack of enjoyment (only some relief as its temporary)
GUILT AND DISGUST other negative emotions targeted at something external

75
Q

What are the 3 cognitive characteristics of OCD?

A

OBSESSIONS very irrational and individuals are aware of this, always cause high anxiety
COGNITIVE STRATEGIES TO DEAL WITH OBSESSIONS such as praying but this could make people feel abnormal
IRRATIONALITY AND EXCESSIVE ANXIETY people are aware they are irrational thoughts, tend to be hyper-vigilant (maintain constant awareness for potential hazards)

76
Q

What is the biological explanation of behaviour based upon?

A

Our biological structures and processes such as genes, neurochemistry and the nervous system

77
Q

What is the key assumption for the biological explanation of OCD?

A

All thoughts, feelings and behaviours have a biological basis, therefore mental illness has a biological basis

78
Q

What is the biological explanation of OCD made up of?

A

2 parts - genetic explanation and the neural explanation

79
Q

What does the genetic explanation of OCD suggest?

A

Wether a person develops OCD is partly due to their genes (genetic predisposition - genes increase chances of getting disorder)

80
Q

What did Lewis 1936 find about genes and patients with OCD?

A

37% of patients has a parent also with OCD, 21% had a sibling, suggesting a genetic inherited vulnerability

81
Q

What does the diathesis-stress model suggest in the genetic explanation of OCD?

A

That people gain vulnerability towards a mental illness through genes but an ‘environmental stressor’ is also required

82
Q

What are the genes in the genetic explanation for OCD that create vulnerability?

A

Candidate genes (such as SERT gene which regulates serotonin) if faulty it can lead to lower levels of this neurotransmitter

83
Q

What is another candidate gene found in sufferers with OCD?

A

COMT gene, regulating production of dopamine (found more common in OCD sufferers)

84
Q

Why is OCD thought to be polygenic?

A

OCD development is not determined by 1 gene but a few maybe as many as 230

85
Q

What did Nestadt 2010 find in the twin study on ODC?

A

Found identical/MZ twins had a concordance rate of 68% whereas non-identical/DZ twins was only 31% of OCD

86
Q

What does Nestadt’s study suggest about genes and OCD?

A

Higher concordance rate for MZ twins is taken as evidence for a genetic component in a characteristic/disorder

87
Q

What is a strength of the genetic explanation for OCD?

A

Nestadt’s supporting research

88
Q

What are 2 weaknesses of the genetic explanation for OCD?

A

Research can be criticized (MZ twins are more likely to share similar environment e.g treated exactly the same so environmental factors could contribute to higher concordance rate)
Does not fully explain development of OCD (Cromer 2007 found over half of OCD patients studied had a traumatic event in past and OCD was more severe the more trauma’s were recorded - suggests again environmental factors can trigger risk of OCD)

89
Q

What is the neural explanation of OCD?

A

Genes associated with OCD are likely to affect the levels of key neurotransmitters as well as structures of the brain

90
Q

What does a low level of the neurotransmitter serotonin lead to?

A

Mood and mental processing being affected - at least some cases of OCD can be explained by low levels of serotonin

91
Q

Where is there evidence of people with OCD having abnormality in their brains?

A

PET scans

92
Q

Where does the orbitofrontal cortex send signals about potential worries?

A

Basal ganglia and thalamus

93
Q

Where are usual worries of OCD suppressed?

A

By the caudate nucleus in the basal ganglia - if this isnt functioning properly the worry is not suppressed and the thalamus is alerted and worry turns into a cycle

94
Q

What is a strength of the neural explanation of OCD?

A

Supporting evidence e.g role of serotonin, anti-depressants increasing levels are found to work on OCD symptoms and PET scans shows increased activity in OFC with people with OCD

95
Q

What are 2 weaknesses of the neural explanation of OCD?

A

Difficult to establish cause and effect - brain could be different as a result of having OCD not the cause
Explanation is not clear which neural explanations are involved in OCD (researchers have not yet found a brain system which ALWAYS plays a part with people with OCD - complex)

96
Q

What is one key biological treatment for OCD?

A

Drug treatment to target abnormal neurotransmitter levels

97
Q

What does drug therapy assume?

A

That there is a chemical imbalance in the brain which can be corrected by drugs

98
Q

Which neurotransmitter has been associated with OCD?

A

Serotonin - too little is believed to cause OCD

99
Q

What does SSRI’s stand for?

A

Selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors

100
Q

What do SSRI’s work on?

A

Increasing certain neurotransmitters in the brain by preventing the reabosrbtion of serotonin

101
Q

Why does preventing the reabosorbtion of serotonin work?

A

SSRI’s effectively increase its levels in the synapse which continues to stimulate post synaptic neuron meaning the person has more available for next neuron to pick up

102
Q

What is the most common SSRI used for adults?

A

fluoxetine (prozac)

103
Q

How long is it believed to take for SSRI’s to have an effect on symptoms of OCD?

A

3-4 months

104
Q

What can you do if a person does not have effective SSRI treatment?

A

Combine it with other drugs or can use alternatives;
Tricyclics (more side effects and used as a last resort)
SNRI’s (increase levels in serotonin and nor-adrenaline)
Anti psychotic drugs (lowers dopamine)

105
Q

What are the 3 strengths for the biological approach at treating OCD?

A

Supporting evidence (Soomro 2009 found that 17 studies comparing SSRI’s to placebo’s significantly better results for SSRI’s symptoms declined for 70% patients)
Not time consuming and cost effective for NHS compared to therapy
Can combine SSRI’s with other treatment (CBT)

106
Q

What are the 3 weaknesses for the biological approach at treating OCD?

A

Biggest weakness is side effects people may not want to carry on with treatment
Drugs may not work when people believe OCD is caused by trauma
You have to keep taking them or symptoms reoccur

Psychology AS (6 decks)

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