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Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

How many theories of memory are there?

A

2

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2
Q

What are they?

A

Multi-Store Model and Working Memory Model

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3
Q

Who was the multi-store model developed by and when?

A

Atkinson & Shiffrin 1968

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4
Q

Who was the working memory model developed by and when?

A

Baddeley & Hitch 1974

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5
Q

What are the 3 main things found in MSM?

A

Coding, Capacity, Duration

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6
Q

What is coding?

A

The form in which information is stored

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7
Q

What is capacity?

A

The amount of information that can be held in our memory stores

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8
Q

What is duration?

A

The length of time information can be held in our memory stores

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9
Q

What are the 3 main features of the MSM?

A

It is a linear model (only travels in 1 direction), there are 3 stores & each store has its own characteristics in terms of coding, capacity & duration

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10
Q

What are the 3 stores in MSM?

A

Sensory register, short term memory, long term memory

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11
Q

How will memory travel to the short term memory from the sensory register?

A

If you pay attention to it

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12
Q

How will memory travel to the long term memory from the short term memory?

A

If you rehearse it

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13
Q

What are the 2 sensory stores within the sensory register?

A

Iconic - visual. & echoic - auditory

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14
Q

What are the 4 types of experiments?

A

Laboratory, field, natural, quasi

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15
Q

What are some strengths of laboratory experiments?

A

You can control all variables, the IV and DV are precisely operationalised. Higher reliability of results as well controlled.

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16
Q

What are some weaknesses of laboratory experiments?

A

They lack ecological validity. Participants may alter their behavior and not behave naturally.

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17
Q

What is reliability?

A

Whether a study is replicated to produce the same results.

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18
Q

What is ecological validity?

A

How well a study reflects everyday life.

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19
Q

What are some strengths of field experiments?

A

Ecological validity is high as they are in their natural environments. Behavior is natural as they may not know it is an experiment, less likely to show demand characteristics.

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20
Q

What are some weaknesses of field experiments?

A

Reliability is lower, researcher cannot control the environment, extraneous and confounding variables could affect the DV.

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21
Q

What are some strengths of natural and quasi experiments?

A

Allows research where IV cant be manipulated, ecological validity is at its highest

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22
Q

What are some weaknesses of natural and quasi experiments?

A

Cant establish the cause and effect, natural experiments are impossible to do again, they are not very reliable

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23
Q

What is experimental design?

A

How researchers use their participants in their experiments.

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24
Q

What are the 3 types of experimental design?

A

Independent groups, repeated measures, matched pairs.

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25
Q

What are independent groups?

A

Different participants in each condition of the experiment, in seperate groups

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26
Q

What are repeated measures?

A

The same participants are used in both conditions.

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27
Q

What are matched pairs?

A

Testing separate but similar groups of people for each condition. Researcher matches on important characteristics.

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28
Q

Why would you forget information at the short term memory stage?

A

If rehearsal is prevented

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29
Q

According to the MSM what would information have to pass through to get to long term memory?

A

Sensory register & short term memory

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30
Q

Who found out about coding in the sensory register and when?

A

Crowder 1993

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31
Q

What were the findings of Crowder?

A

That sensory information is coded into different sensory stores and held for different duration of time (iconic - only a few milliseconds and echoic - 2-3 seconds)

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32
Q

Who found out about capacity in the sensory register and when?

A

Sperling 1960

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33
Q

What were the findings of Sperling?

A

The capacity of sensory register is very large

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34
Q

Who found out about duration in the sensory register and when?

A

Walsh & Thompson 1978

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35
Q

What were the findings of Walsh & Thompson?

A

The duration of the sensory store is limited and dependent on age.

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36
Q

Who found out about coding in STM and when?

A

Baddeley 1966

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37
Q

What were the findings of Baddeley in STM?

A

STM codes acoustically

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38
Q

Who found out about capacity in STM and when?

A

Miller 1956

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39
Q

What were the findings of Miller?`

A

Concluded the capacity of STM was 5-9 items of information but it can be increased by CHUNKING

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40
Q

Who found out about duration in STM and when?

A

Peterson & Peterson 1959

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41
Q

What were the findings of Peterson & Peterson?

A

STM has a very short duration unless we rehearse the information

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42
Q

Who found out about coding in LTM and when?

A

Baddeley 1966

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43
Q

What were the findings of Baddeley in LTM?

A

Concluded information in LTM is coded semantically

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44
Q

Who found out about capacity in LTM and when?

A

Linton 1975

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45
Q

What were the findings of Linton?

A

There is a huge capacity of LTM

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46
Q

Who found out about duration in LTM and when?

A

Bahrick 1984

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47
Q

What were the findings of Bahrick?

A

Demonstrates LTM can be infinite.

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48
Q

What was the study that Sperling actually did?

A

Flashed a 3x4 grid of letters onto a screen for 1 20th of a second, used 3 different sounds to indicate to participants which row to recall, recall of letters in the indicated row was high. ALL INFORMATION WAS ORIGINALLY THERE.

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49
Q

What was the study Baddeley STM actually did?

A

Presented a random sequence of 5 words in 4 categories… Acoustically similar & dissimilar and semantically similar & dissimilar. He asked participants to write words down immediately.

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50
Q

What was the study Miller actually did?

A

Millers magic number 7. Immediate digit span test, patricipants were read a series of numbers and repeated them back in the same order. Number of digits they had to recall was increased until they could remember no more.

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51
Q

What was the study Peterson & Peterson actually did?

A

Tested 24 undergraduates each student took part in 8 trials. Given a trigram (YGM) to remember and also a 3 digit number. Asked to count backwards in 3’s for a different amount of time (3,6,9,12,15,18 seconds) - THIS IS CALLED RETENTION INTERVENTION.

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52
Q

What was the study Baddeley LTM actually did?

A

Modified, 10 words instead of 5. Each list was presented 4 times and tested after a 20 minute interval.

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53
Q

What was the study Linton actually did?

A

Kept a diary over many years, assosiated a key word to each day and could recall the days events with 70% accuracy even 7 years later because of they key word - estimated 11000 items were recorded on the cards

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54
Q

What was the study Bahrick actually did?

A

Tested 400 participants aged between 17-74 to indentify ex classmates from a set of photos & list of names. Those who left school in the last 15 years remembered 90%, those who left school 48 years ago identified 80%.

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55
Q

What is the recency effect?

A

Words at the start and end of a list should be remembered best if you are testing memory that way

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56
Q

What is the primacy effect?

A

If information is rehearsed it enters LTM

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57
Q

Why are the words in the middle of a list not likely to be remembered as well?

A

To long to stay in STM & not rehearsed enough to be in LTM.

58
Q

What is 1 strength of the MSM?

A

There is a lot of supporting research evidence.

59
Q

What is another strength of the MSM?

A

Lots of studies to support it - i.e Clive Wearing.

60
Q

Who was the working memory model developed by?

A

Baddeley & Hitch 1974

61
Q

What it WMM a model of?

A

STM

62
Q

What does the WMM see STM as?

A

An active processor

63
Q

How much information can the WMM hold?

A

Several bits whilst they are being worked on

64
Q

What are the 4 components of the WMM?

A

Central executive, phonological loop, visuo spatial sketch pad & episodic buffer

65
Q

What does the central executive do?

A

Controls and directs information. Prioritses & controls the slave systems

66
Q

What does the phonological loop do?

A

Deals with sounds and order of information. Stores words which have been heard & has a limited capacity. Only 1 task can be carried out at a time.

67
Q

What are the 2 stores in the phonological loop?

A

Primary acoustic store (PAS) and articulatory process (AP)

68
Q

What is PAS?

A

inner ear

69
Q

What is AP?

A

inner voice

70
Q

What does the visuo spatial sketch pad do?

A

Holds visual and spatial information. Used to carry out spatial tasks, can only do 1 at a time. Limited capacity.

71
Q

How is the visuo spatial sketch pad divided?

A

Visual Cache (VC) stores visual shape, material and colour. Inner scribe (IS) deals with where things are.

72
Q

What does the episodic buffer do?

A

Integrates information from slave systems whilst sending info to LTM. Records events that are happening, limited capacity but is able to store in both forms.

73
Q

What happened to KP?

A

Motorcycle accident, brain damage.

74
Q

What part of his memory was damaged?

A

STM

75
Q

What information does he remember and not remember?

A

Remembers visual but not auditory (if he is told)

76
Q

What does this mean KP has and has not got?

A

He has a visuo spatial sketch pad but not the phonological loop

77
Q

What are some strengths of the WMM? (4)

A

Evidence from brain scans, studies of dual-task performance (existence of separate stores in STM) researchers today generally agree, suggests rehearsal is optional

78
Q

What are some weaknesses of the WMM? (2)

A

Little evidence of what the central executive is and how it works, most experiments were carried out in labs (lack ecological validity)

79
Q

Who developed the 3 types of LTM and when?

A

Tulving 1985

80
Q

What are the 3 types of LTM?

A

Semantic, episodic, procedural

81
Q

What is semantic memory?

A

A personal encyclopedia, knowledge of facts of the world. Needs to be deliberately recalled

82
Q

What is episodic memory?

A

Personal episodes and events that have happened to you, time stamped, have a beginning middle and end.

83
Q

What is procedural memory?

A

Knowledge of how to do things, skills we have learnt - i.e how to ride a bike

84
Q

Clive Wearing could still play the piano, what memory does this mean he still has?

A

Procedural

85
Q

What evidence supports different types of LTM?

A

Clinical evidence, neuroimaging evidance

86
Q

What sort of clinical evidence supports different types of LTM?

A

Clive Wearing & HM. Able to remember some things but not others (did not have episodic or semantic memory)

87
Q

What sort of neuroimaging evidence supports different types of LTM?

A

Physical study!!! 1994 Tulving, PET scanner - episodic and semantic memories from prefrontal cortex.

88
Q

Which memory is most affected by cognitive impairment?

A

Episodic

89
Q

What are the 2 theories of forgetting?

A

Interference theory and cue dependency theory

90
Q

Name 4 reasons you may forget things

A

Pressure, emotional state, psychical reason, decay

91
Q

What is the interference theory?

A

Explanation which states that 2 sets of information compete and become confused

92
Q

What are the 2 types of interference?

A

Proactive & retroactive

93
Q

What type of memory store does interference explain?

A

Long term memory

94
Q

What is proactive interference?

A

Previous information interfering with new information

95
Q

What is retroactive interference?

A

New information interfering with previous information

96
Q

What must you always start an essay on forgetting with?

A

The main assumptions

97
Q

What is the other name for cue dependency theory?

A

Retrieval failure

98
Q

What is cue dependency theory?

A

An explanation that states information is still available we just don’t have the right cues to access it

99
Q

What is a cue?

A

A memory prompt

100
Q

What are the 2 types of cues?

A

Context cues and state cues

101
Q

What is context-dependent forgetting?

A

When the external environment is different at recall from how it was at the time of learning - absence of external environmental cues

102
Q

What is state-dependent forgetting?

A

Absence of state cues. State cues are from your internal environment - you may be drunk at the time and cannot remember something due to your different internal state when sober

103
Q

Who put forward the encoding specificity hypothesis?

A

Tulving

104
Q

What is the encoding specificity hypothesis?

A

The retrieval cues do not have to be exactly the same as the original information but the more similar they are the more likely they will be effective

105
Q

What is a strength of retrieval failure?

A

There is lots of supporting evidence (Godden & Baddeley - testing whether information is most likely to be remembered in the same place as learning it (under water and on the beach - divers))

106
Q

What is another strength of retrieval failure?

A

The theory has real life practical applications

107
Q

What is a criticism of retrieval failure?

A

There is problems with the encoding specificity hypothesis

108
Q

What is one study supporting the interference theory?

A

Baddeley and Hitch 1977 - Asked rugby players to remember all of the games they played in a rugby season - some players had played fewer games due to injury and the results said that there was a greater number of games remembered by those who has played fewer games (SUPPORTING THE THEORY).

109
Q

What is another study done by McGeoch and McDonald in 1931 supporting the interference theory?

A

One we did in class. Similarity of lists of 10 words make retrieval more likely.

110
Q

What are the strengths of the interference theory? (4)

A

Lots of research evidence, most of the evidence is laboratory based so very scientific, practical applications to relate to (revision), Baddeley and Hitch demonstrated it in a real life situation.

111
Q

What are the limitations of the interference theory? (3)

A

Lack ecological validity from lab experiments, may not explain forgetting in everyday life, do not reflect things we have to know in everyday life (birthdays, faces etc)

112
Q

What is eyewitness testimony?

A

Someone who has seen a crime giving a statement on what they have seen

113
Q

What did the American Psychological Association find about EWT?

A

Eyewitness evidence is wrong 33% of the time

114
Q

Why is EWT important to society?

A

Innocent person could go to jail / criminal could go free

115
Q

Name some problems with EWT?

A

Memory not accurate, not paying attention, confusion, adrenaline, anxiety, similar looking people etc

116
Q

What are the 2 main factors affecting EWT?

A

Misleading questions and anxiety

117
Q

What is miss-leading information?

A

Witness being lead in a particular direction

118
Q

What are leading questions?

A

Questions that suggest a certain answer due to the way they are phrased

119
Q

What is post event discussion?

A

Witnesses discussing what they saw seen and influencing the accuracy of each others memory

120
Q

What is a strength of eye witness testimony?

A

Lots of the research is laboratory experiments which has strong scientific controls - ie Loftus and Palmer 1974

121
Q

What was Loftus and Palmers research?

A

Participants watched the same video clip of a car accident and got asked to say the speed of the car when it hit the other car. The verb hit was changed to 4 other verbs. the average speed of the car by the group with the word contacted was 31.8mph whereas the group with the word smashed average was 40.5mph

122
Q

What was Gabbert et al’s research 2003?

A

Participants watched the same video of a crime from different perspectives, both participants then discussed what each other saw. One group of participants did not discuss with each other. Researchers then idivually tested each participants recall - 71% of participants who has discussed mistakenly recalled info as a pose to 0% of the group who did not discuss.

123
Q

What is the key limitation of EWT?

A

Lacks ecological validity - lab experiments. Video clips in Loftus & Palmer is not the same as real life watching

124
Q

When is anxiety more likely when watching a crime take place?

A

If a weapon is involved

125
Q

What are the 2 effects anxiety can have on recall?

A

Negative / positive

126
Q

What is a negative effect in EWT?

A

Where a physiological arousal is high which prevents us from paying attention to important cues

127
Q

What is a positive effect in EWT?

A

Stress from witnessing a crime triggers ‘fight or flight’ which increases our alertness and improves memory/attention to cues

128
Q

What is Yerkes-Dodson Law?

A

Where an intermediate level of high & low anxiety gives us the best recall as a pose to the extremes

129
Q

What did Johnson and Scott 1976 find about anxiety in EWT?

A

It has a negative effect. Man with leaking pen & man with bloody knife in waiting room whilst waiting to be part of experiment. Participants with leaking pen man recalled man from photos with 49% accuracy, other group recalled 33% accuracy

130
Q

What did Yuille and Cutshall 1986 find about anxiety in EWT?

A

Positive effect. Real life shooting in gun shop, owner shot thief. Witnesses agreed to be in research, had to recall what happened & stress /7, people who rated stress high recalled 88% accuracy as a pose to low stress which was 75% accuracy.

131
Q

Why is it right to cause anxiety among participants?

A

Because of good practical applications.

132
Q

Why is it wrong to cause anxiety among participants?

A

Because of ethical issues.

133
Q

What is a disadvantage of creating anxiety?

A

Demand characteristics - people could work it out as mostly lab experiments

134
Q

What is another disadvantage from creating anxiety?

A

Weapon focus may test surprise rather than anxiety - Johnson and Scott may therefore be unreliable

135
Q

What does a standard interview conducted by police require you to do? (4)

A

Recall events in chronological order, recall from one perspective, report only key facts & ignore contextual surroundings

136
Q

Who was the cognitive interview developed by?

A

Geiselman & Fisher 1992

137
Q

What is the cognitive interview?

A

Police using better techniques when interviewing eyewitnesses

138
Q

What are the 4 main things police think about when using the cognitive interview?

A

Report everything, reinstate the context, reverse the order, change the perspective

139
Q

What is the enhanced cognitive interview?

A

Developed additional elements of the CI. Focusing on reducing eyewitnesses anxiety, getting them to relax and speak slowly

140
Q

What are the strengths of the cognitive interview? (4)

A

More detail, improves accuracy (social benefit), each element is just as useful as triggers more information which may be more important. REAL LIFE PRACTICAL BENEFITS OF POLICE USING CI.

141
Q

What are the limitations of the cognitive interview?

A

TIME CONSUMING! Police may be unimpressed as the ‘proper’ version of CI is not being used

Psychology AS (6 decks)

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