Memory Flashcards
1
Q
How many theories of memory are there?
A
2
2
Q
What are they?
A
Multi-Store Model and Working Memory Model
3
Q
Who was the multi-store model developed by and when?
A
Atkinson & Shiffrin 1968
4
Q
Who was the working memory model developed by and when?
A
Baddeley & Hitch 1974
5
Q
What are the 3 main things found in MSM?
A
Coding, Capacity, Duration
6
Q
What is coding?
A
The form in which information is stored
7
Q
What is capacity?
A
The amount of information that can be held in our memory stores
8
Q
What is duration?
A
The length of time information can be held in our memory stores
9
Q
What are the 3 main features of the MSM?
A
It is a linear model (only travels in 1 direction), there are 3 stores & each store has its own characteristics in terms of coding, capacity & duration
10
Q
What are the 3 stores in MSM?
A
Sensory register, short term memory, long term memory
11
Q
How will memory travel to the short term memory from the sensory register?
A
If you pay attention to it
12
Q
How will memory travel to the long term memory from the short term memory?
A
If you rehearse it
13
Q
What are the 2 sensory stores within the sensory register?
A
Iconic - visual. & echoic - auditory
14
Q
What are the 4 types of experiments?
A
Laboratory, field, natural, quasi
15
Q
What are some strengths of laboratory experiments?
A
You can control all variables, the IV and DV are precisely operationalised. Higher reliability of results as well controlled.
16
Q
What are some weaknesses of laboratory experiments?
A
They lack ecological validity. Participants may alter their behavior and not behave naturally.
17
Q
What is reliability?
A
Whether a study is replicated to produce the same results.
18
Q
What is ecological validity?
A
How well a study reflects everyday life.
19
Q
What are some strengths of field experiments?
A
Ecological validity is high as they are in their natural environments. Behavior is natural as they may not know it is an experiment, less likely to show demand characteristics.
20
Q
What are some weaknesses of field experiments?
A
Reliability is lower, researcher cannot control the environment, extraneous and confounding variables could affect the DV.
21
Q
What are some strengths of natural and quasi experiments?
A
Allows research where IV cant be manipulated, ecological validity is at its highest
22
Q
What are some weaknesses of natural and quasi experiments?
A
Cant establish the cause and effect, natural experiments are impossible to do again, they are not very reliable
23
Q
What is experimental design?
A
How researchers use their participants in their experiments.
24
Q
What are the 3 types of experimental design?
A
Independent groups, repeated measures, matched pairs.
25
What are independent groups?
Different participants in each condition of the experiment, in seperate groups
26
What are repeated measures?
The same participants are used in both conditions.
27
What are matched pairs?
Testing separate but similar groups of people for each condition. Researcher matches on important characteristics.
28
Why would you forget information at the short term memory stage?
If rehearsal is prevented
29
According to the MSM what would information have to pass through to get to long term memory?
Sensory register & short term memory
30
Who found out about coding in the sensory register and when?
Crowder 1993
31
What were the findings of Crowder?
That sensory information is coded into different sensory stores and held for different duration of time (iconic - only a few milliseconds and echoic - 2-3 seconds)
32
Who found out about capacity in the sensory register and when?
Sperling 1960
33
What were the findings of Sperling?
The capacity of sensory register is very large
34
Who found out about duration in the sensory register and when?
Walsh & Thompson 1978
35
What were the findings of Walsh & Thompson?
The duration of the sensory store is limited and dependent on age.
36
Who found out about coding in STM and when?
Baddeley 1966
37
What were the findings of Baddeley in STM?
STM codes acoustically
38
Who found out about capacity in STM and when?
Miller 1956
39
What were the findings of Miller?`
Concluded the capacity of STM was 5-9 items of information but it can be increased by CHUNKING
40
Who found out about duration in STM and when?
Peterson & Peterson 1959
41
What were the findings of Peterson & Peterson?
STM has a very short duration unless we rehearse the information
42
Who found out about coding in LTM and when?
Baddeley 1966
43
What were the findings of Baddeley in LTM?
Concluded information in LTM is coded semantically
44
Who found out about capacity in LTM and when?
Linton 1975
45
What were the findings of Linton?
There is a huge capacity of LTM
46
Who found out about duration in LTM and when?
Bahrick 1984
47
What were the findings of Bahrick?
Demonstrates LTM can be infinite.
48
What was the study that Sperling actually did?
Flashed a 3x4 grid of letters onto a screen for 1 20th of a second, used 3 different sounds to indicate to participants which row to recall, recall of letters in the indicated row was high. ALL INFORMATION WAS ORIGINALLY THERE.
49
What was the study Baddeley STM actually did?
Presented a random sequence of 5 words in 4 categories... Acoustically similar & dissimilar and semantically similar & dissimilar. He asked participants to write words down immediately.
50
What was the study Miller actually did?
Millers magic number 7. Immediate digit span test, patricipants were read a series of numbers and repeated them back in the same order. Number of digits they had to recall was increased until they could remember no more.
51
What was the study Peterson & Peterson actually did?
Tested 24 undergraduates each student took part in 8 trials. Given a trigram (YGM) to remember and also a 3 digit number. Asked to count backwards in 3's for a different amount of time (3,6,9,12,15,18 seconds) - THIS IS CALLED RETENTION INTERVENTION.
52
What was the study Baddeley LTM actually did?
Modified, 10 words instead of 5. Each list was presented 4 times and tested after a 20 minute interval.
53
What was the study Linton actually did?
Kept a diary over many years, assosiated a key word to each day and could recall the days events with 70% accuracy even 7 years later because of they key word - estimated 11000 items were recorded on the cards
54
What was the study Bahrick actually did?
Tested 400 participants aged between 17-74 to indentify ex classmates from a set of photos & list of names. Those who left school in the last 15 years remembered 90%, those who left school 48 years ago identified 80%.
55
What is the recency effect?
Words at the start and end of a list should be remembered best if you are testing memory that way
56
What is the primacy effect?
If information is rehearsed it enters LTM
57
Why are the words in the middle of a list not likely to be remembered as well?
To long to stay in STM & not rehearsed enough to be in LTM.
58
What is 1 strength of the MSM?
There is a lot of supporting research evidence.
59
What is another strength of the MSM?
Lots of studies to support it - i.e Clive Wearing.
60
Who was the working memory model developed by?
Baddeley & Hitch 1974
61
What it WMM a model of?
STM
62
What does the WMM see STM as?
An active processor
63
How much information can the WMM hold?
Several bits whilst they are being worked on
64
What are the 4 components of the WMM?
Central executive, phonological loop, visuo spatial sketch pad & episodic buffer
65
What does the central executive do?
Controls and directs information. Prioritses & controls the slave systems
66
What does the phonological loop do?
Deals with sounds and order of information. Stores words which have been heard & has a limited capacity. Only 1 task can be carried out at a time.
67
What are the 2 stores in the phonological loop?
Primary acoustic store (PAS) and articulatory process (AP)
68
What is PAS?
inner ear
69
What is AP?
inner voice
70
What does the visuo spatial sketch pad do?
Holds visual and spatial information. Used to carry out spatial tasks, can only do 1 at a time. Limited capacity.
71
How is the visuo spatial sketch pad divided?
Visual Cache (VC) stores visual shape, material and colour. Inner scribe (IS) deals with where things are.
72
What does the episodic buffer do?
Integrates information from slave systems whilst sending info to LTM. Records events that are happening, limited capacity but is able to store in both forms.
73
What happened to KP?
Motorcycle accident, brain damage.
74
What part of his memory was damaged?
STM
75
What information does he remember and not remember?
Remembers visual but not auditory (if he is told)
76
What does this mean KP has and has not got?
He has a visuo spatial sketch pad but not the phonological loop
77
What are some strengths of the WMM? (4)
Evidence from brain scans, studies of dual-task performance (existence of separate stores in STM) researchers today generally agree, suggests rehearsal is optional
78
What are some weaknesses of the WMM? (2)
Little evidence of what the central executive is and how it works, most experiments were carried out in labs (lack ecological validity)
79
Who developed the 3 types of LTM and when?
Tulving 1985
80
What are the 3 types of LTM?
Semantic, episodic, procedural
81
What is semantic memory?
A personal encyclopedia, knowledge of facts of the world. Needs to be deliberately recalled
82
What is episodic memory?
Personal episodes and events that have happened to you, time stamped, have a beginning middle and end.
83
What is procedural memory?
Knowledge of how to do things, skills we have learnt - i.e how to ride a bike
84
Clive Wearing could still play the piano, what memory does this mean he still has?
Procedural
85
What evidence supports different types of LTM?
Clinical evidence, neuroimaging evidance
86
What sort of clinical evidence supports different types of LTM?
Clive Wearing & HM. Able to remember some things but not others (did not have episodic or semantic memory)
87
What sort of neuroimaging evidence supports different types of LTM?
Physical study!!! 1994 Tulving, PET scanner - episodic and semantic memories from prefrontal cortex.
88
Which memory is most affected by cognitive impairment?
Episodic
89
What are the 2 theories of forgetting?
Interference theory and cue dependency theory
90
Name 4 reasons you may forget things
Pressure, emotional state, psychical reason, decay
91
What is the interference theory?
Explanation which states that 2 sets of information compete and become confused
92
What are the 2 types of interference?
Proactive & retroactive
93
What type of memory store does interference explain?
Long term memory
94
What is proactive interference?
Previous information interfering with new information
95
What is retroactive interference?
New information interfering with previous information
96
What must you always start an essay on forgetting with?
The main assumptions
97
What is the other name for cue dependency theory?
Retrieval failure
98
What is cue dependency theory?
An explanation that states information is still available we just don't have the right cues to access it
99
What is a cue?
A memory prompt
100
What are the 2 types of cues?
Context cues and state cues
101
What is context-dependent forgetting?
When the external environment is different at recall from how it was at the time of learning - absence of external environmental cues
102
What is state-dependent forgetting?
Absence of state cues. State cues are from your internal environment - you may be drunk at the time and cannot remember something due to your different internal state when sober
103
Who put forward the encoding specificity hypothesis?
Tulving
104
What is the encoding specificity hypothesis?
The retrieval cues do not have to be exactly the same as the original information but the more similar they are the more likely they will be effective
105
What is a strength of retrieval failure?
There is lots of supporting evidence (Godden & Baddeley - testing whether information is most likely to be remembered in the same place as learning it (under water and on the beach - divers))
106
What is another strength of retrieval failure?
The theory has real life practical applications
107
What is a criticism of retrieval failure?
There is problems with the encoding specificity hypothesis
108
What is one study supporting the interference theory?
Baddeley and Hitch 1977 - Asked rugby players to remember all of the games they played in a rugby season - some players had played fewer games due to injury and the results said that there was a greater number of games remembered by those who has played fewer games (SUPPORTING THE THEORY).
109
What is another study done by McGeoch and McDonald in 1931 supporting the interference theory?
One we did in class. Similarity of lists of 10 words make retrieval more likely.
110
What are the strengths of the interference theory? (4)
Lots of research evidence, most of the evidence is laboratory based so very scientific, practical applications to relate to (revision), Baddeley and Hitch demonstrated it in a real life situation.
111
What are the limitations of the interference theory? (3)
Lack ecological validity from lab experiments, may not explain forgetting in everyday life, do not reflect things we have to know in everyday life (birthdays, faces etc)
112
What is eyewitness testimony?
Someone who has seen a crime giving a statement on what they have seen
113
What did the American Psychological Association find about EWT?
Eyewitness evidence is wrong 33% of the time
114
Why is EWT important to society?
Innocent person could go to jail / criminal could go free
115
Name some problems with EWT?
Memory not accurate, not paying attention, confusion, adrenaline, anxiety, similar looking people etc
116
What are the 2 main factors affecting EWT?
Misleading questions and anxiety
117
What is miss-leading information?
Witness being lead in a particular direction
118
What are leading questions?
Questions that suggest a certain answer due to the way they are phrased
119
What is post event discussion?
Witnesses discussing what they saw seen and influencing the accuracy of each others memory
120
What is a strength of eye witness testimony?
Lots of the research is laboratory experiments which has strong scientific controls - ie Loftus and Palmer 1974
121
What was Loftus and Palmers research?
Participants watched the same video clip of a car accident and got asked to say the speed of the car when it hit the other car. The verb hit was changed to 4 other verbs. the average speed of the car by the group with the word contacted was 31.8mph whereas the group with the word smashed average was 40.5mph
122
What was Gabbert et al's research 2003?
Participants watched the same video of a crime from different perspectives, both participants then discussed what each other saw. One group of participants did not discuss with each other. Researchers then idivually tested each participants recall - 71% of participants who has discussed mistakenly recalled info as a pose to 0% of the group who did not discuss.
123
What is the key limitation of EWT?
Lacks ecological validity - lab experiments. Video clips in Loftus & Palmer is not the same as real life watching
124
When is anxiety more likely when watching a crime take place?
If a weapon is involved
125
What are the 2 effects anxiety can have on recall?
Negative / positive
126
What is a negative effect in EWT?
Where a physiological arousal is high which prevents us from paying attention to important cues
127
What is a positive effect in EWT?
Stress from witnessing a crime triggers 'fight or flight' which increases our alertness and improves memory/attention to cues
128
What is Yerkes-Dodson Law?
Where an intermediate level of high & low anxiety gives us the best recall as a pose to the extremes
129
What did Johnson and Scott 1976 find about anxiety in EWT?
It has a negative effect. Man with leaking pen & man with bloody knife in waiting room whilst waiting to be part of experiment. Participants with leaking pen man recalled man from photos with 49% accuracy, other group recalled 33% accuracy
130
What did Yuille and Cutshall 1986 find about anxiety in EWT?
Positive effect. Real life shooting in gun shop, owner shot thief. Witnesses agreed to be in research, had to recall what happened & stress /7, people who rated stress high recalled 88% accuracy as a pose to low stress which was 75% accuracy.
131
Why is it right to cause anxiety among participants?
Because of good practical applications.
132
Why is it wrong to cause anxiety among participants?
Because of ethical issues.
133
What is a disadvantage of creating anxiety?
Demand characteristics - people could work it out as mostly lab experiments
134
What is another disadvantage from creating anxiety?
Weapon focus may test surprise rather than anxiety - Johnson and Scott may therefore be unreliable
135
What does a standard interview conducted by police require you to do? (4)
Recall events in chronological order, recall from one perspective, report only key facts & ignore contextual surroundings
136
Who was the cognitive interview developed by?
Geiselman & Fisher 1992
137
What is the cognitive interview?
Police using better techniques when interviewing eyewitnesses
138
What are the 4 main things police think about when using the cognitive interview?
Report everything, reinstate the context, reverse the order, change the perspective
139
What is the enhanced cognitive interview?
Developed additional elements of the CI. Focusing on reducing eyewitnesses anxiety, getting them to relax and speak slowly
140
What are the strengths of the cognitive interview? (4)
More detail, improves accuracy (social benefit), each element is just as useful as triggers more information which may be more important. REAL LIFE PRACTICAL BENEFITS OF POLICE USING CI.
141
What are the limitations of the cognitive interview?
TIME CONSUMING! Police may be unimpressed as the 'proper' version of CI is not being used
