Psychopathology

Question 1

What is statistical infrequency ?

Answer 1

The typical values are the normal represented through the mean/median/mode.
Statistical infrequency is outside of the typical values and is therefore defined as abnormal.
Example - IQ distribution

Question 2

Evaluation of statistical infrequency

Answer 2

• Some abnormal behaviour is desirable, difficult to establish treatment as can’t identify difference between desirable and undesirable behaviour
• not everyone benefits from the label
  + real life application, useful in clinical assessment, measuring severity of symptoms

Question 3

What is deviation from social norms ?

Answer 3

People who behave differently from social norms, the rules and standards that are understood by members of a group and that guide or constrain social behaviours
Example - Homosexuality

Question 4

Evaluation of deviation from social norms ?

Answer 4

+ can lead to human rights abuses
- cultural relativism i.e. classification of schizophrenia in different cultures
- distinguishes between desirable and undesirable behaviour, according to this definition, abnormal behaviour is behaviour that damages others

Question 5

Failure to function adequately

Answer 5

Rosenhan and Seligman have proposed some signs that can be used to determine when someone is not coping
Abnormal when you can’t cope with everyday life demands and fail to function adequately
example - hygiene

Question 6

evaluation of failure to function adequately

Answer 6

• is it simply a deviation from social norms, we risk limiting personal freedom and discrimination against minority group
• subjective judgements

Question 7

Deviation from ideal mental health

Answer 7

When we do not meet Jahoda’s criteria we cannot be considered to have good mental health
- Realistic view of the world
- accurate perception of ourselves
- independent of other people

Question 8

Evaluation of deviation from ideal mental health

Answer 8

• Labelling
• Unrealistic criteria
  + Positive approach, focuses on desirable behaviour rather than undesirable behaviour

Question 9

What is the definition of a phobia ?

Answer 9

intense, persistent, irrational fear of a particular object, event or situation
response is disproportionate and leads to avoidance of phobic object, event or situation
interferes with everyday life

Question 10

What are the behavioural characteristics of phobias ?

Answer 10

panic - patient suffers from psychological arousal upon exposure to phobic stimulus
avoidance - negatively reinforced because it is carried out to avoid the unpleasant consequence of exposure to phobic stimuli, impacts ability to function in everyday life
endurance - occurs when the patient remains exposed to the phobic stimuli for an extended period of time, whilst experiencing heightened levels of anxiety during this time

Question 11

What are the emotional characteristics of phobias ?

Answer 11

Anxiety - emotional consequence of the physiological response of panic
Unawareness that emotional response are irrational - reaction is not proportionate to the threat posed by the stimulus

Question 12

What are the cognitive characteristics of phobias ?

Answer 12

selective attention - patient remains focused on the phobic stimulus even when it is causing them severe anxiety
irrational beliefs - incorrect perception of the danger posed
cognitive distortions - patient does not perceive the phobic stimulus accurately

Question 13

Behavioural explanations for phobias

Answer 13

Mowrer - phobias are learned by classical conditioning and then maintained by operant conditioning i.e. two process model
Classical conditioning suggests that the person has learnt to fear something, when the neutral stimulus is paired with a frightening event (unconditioned stimulus) learnt an association between the neutral and conditioned stimulus
example - Little Albert - generalisation of fear of other stimuli, showed a fear response to other white furry objects
operant conditioning - changing a behaviour because of a reward or for avoidance
Once the fear is established the individual then avoids the object that produces fear to reduce anxiety
strengthens fear makes it more likely object is avoided in the future
The learned fear is then maintained by operant conditioning because the fear is reduced when we avoid the object and reinforced through negative reinforcement.

Question 14

evaluation of the two process model

Answer 14

+ explains both acquisition and maintenance of fear, explains unusual phobias
- reductionist, doesn’t take into account biological factors
- not all bad experiences lead to phobias

Question 15

Behaviourist approach to treatment

Answer 15

Reduce phobic anxiety through the principle of classical conditioning whereby a new response to the phobic stimulus is paired with relaxation instead of anxiety - counterconditioning
reduce phobic anxiety through the principle of operant conditioning whereby there is no option for avoidance behaviour

Question 16

Aims of systematic desensitisation

Answer 16

Systematic desensitisation - Wolpe - to competing emotions cannot occur at the same time, so if fear is replaced with relaxation the fear cannot continue
Systematic desensitisation aims to teach a patient to learn a more appropriate association and designed to reduce an unwanted response to a stimulus
Reciprocal inhibition - process of inhibiting anxiety by substituting a competing response

Question 17

Process of systematic desensitisation

Answer 17

The anxiety hierarchy is constructed by the patient and the therapist. Stepped approach to getting the person to face the object or situation of their phobia from least to most frightening
The patient is trained in relaxation techniques, so that they can relax quickly and as deeply as possible
The patient is then exposed to the phobic stimulus whilst practising the relaxation techniques as feelings of tension and anxiety arise. When this has been achieved the patient continues this process by moving up hierarchy

Question 18

Evaluation of systematic desensitisation

Answer 18

+ Effective, most effective with specific phobias when a particular situation can be identified
+ acceptable to patients, patients choose SD over flooding as it does not causes as much trauma and relaxation techniques

Question 19

What is flooding ?

Answer 19

Overwhelming the individuals senses with an item or situation that causes anxiety so that the person realises no harm will occur
Individual exposed repeatedly and in an extensive way with their phobia
Flooded with thoughts, images and actual experiences of their phobia
Extinction - Exposed to phobic stimuli quickly so no time for avoidance behaviour, patient learns it is harmless
A learned response is extinguished when the conditioned stimulus is encountered without the unconditioned stimulus, results in conditioned stimulus no longer producing conditioned response

Question 20

What is OCD ?

Answer 20

A disorder characterised by obsessive thoughts and compulsive behaviours
Recurrent obsessions and compulsions
Recognition by the individual that the obsessions and compulsions are excessive and/or unreasonable
Person is distressed or impaired and daily life is disrupted by the obsessions and compulsions

Question 21

What are the behavioural characteristics of OCD ?

Answer 21

Compulsions - They are repetitive to reduce the anxiety produced by the obsessions
Avoidance - avoiding situations that trigger anxiety
Aggression and self harm

Question 22

What are the emotional characteristics of OCD ?

Answer 22

Depression
Irrational guilt or disgust
Anxiety

Question 23

What are the cognitive characteristics of OCD ?

Answer 23

Obsessions - recurrent and persistent thoughts ‘intrusive thoughts’
Insight into anxiety
Person recognises that thoughts are a product of their own mind
Recognise that the obsessions and compulsions are excessive and unreasonable

Question 24

What is the cycle of OCD

Answer 24

obsessive thought
anxiety
compulsive behaviour
temporary relief

Question 25

Genetic explanations of OCD

Answer 25

Proposed genetic component to OCD which predisposes some individuals Whether a person develops OCD partly due to genetics. Explains why other family members have OCD

Question 26

Research into genetic explanations of OCD

Answer 26

Bellodi et al - genetic factors play a role from evidence from twin studies and family studies showed that close relatives are more likely to have the disorder than distant relatives Mckeon and Murray - patients with OCD are more likely to have first degree relatives who suffer from anxiety disorders

Question 27

Candidate genes role in OCD

Answer 27

Candidate genes implicated in the development of OCD SERT gene involved in regulating serotonin, neurotransmitter which facilitates message transfer across synapses COMT gene - regulates the production of dopamine, which affects drive and motivation

Question 28

Additional factors involved in Genetic development of OCD

Answer 28

Polygenic - development is not determined by a single gene but a few - there is little predictive power from this explanation Diathesis stress model - people gain vulnerability towards OCD through genes but environmental stressors also involved, acts a trigger

Question 29

AO3 for genetics

Answer 29

- Close relatives of OCD sufferers may have observed and imitated the behaviour - family studies used to explain environmental influences +Evidence of genetic component, twin studies (Nestadt)

Question 30

AO3 for candidate genes

Answer 30

+ Research suggests that candidate genes are implicated in the development of OCD - Too many genes involved - Each genetic variation only increases the risk of OCD by a fraction

Question 31

AO3 of environmental factors

Answer 31

- May gain vulnerability towards OCD through genes that is then triggered by an environmental stressors - not entirely genetic, focus on environmental causes - Comer - found that over half the OCD patients in their sample had a traumatic event in the past

Question 32

Neural explanations

Answer 32

Low levels of serotonin lowers mood Impaired decision making can be a characteristic of some cases of OCD The Parahippocamal gyrus doesn't function normally

Question 33

Low levels of serotonin lowers mood

Answer 33

Affects the processing of mood relevant information, if this doesn't take place effectively, mood is affected Neuroimaging techniques enabled research to identify normal brain patterns

Question 34

Impaired decision making can be a characteristic of some cases of OCD

Answer 34

Abnormal functioning of the lateral frontal lobes of the brain - responsible for logical thinking and making decisions

Question 35

The Parahippocampal gyrus doesn't function normally

Answer 35

Associated with processing unpleasant information

Question 36

Other areas of the brain involved in OCD

Answer 36

Thalamus - responsible for functions including cleaning, checking and other safety behaviour Orbital frontal cortex - Involved in decision making, worry about social and other behaviour, OCD OFC and thalamus are believed to be overactive Overactive thalamus results in increased motivation to clean or check for safety , thalamus being overactive means the OFC will also be OFC results in increased anxiety and increased planning to avoid anxiety

Question 37

AO3 for neurotransmitters

Answer 37

+medication developed to help sufferers - medication not completely effective - time delay between taking drugs to target the condition and any improvements being made yet the chemical imbalance is addressed in hours

Question 38

AO3 of areas of the brain

Answer 38

- neural changes could be a result of suffering from the disorder not the cause of it + cleaning and checking behaviours are 'hard-wired' in the thalamus +advances in technology have allowed researchers to investigate specific areas of the brain more accurately

Question 39

Biological treatments for OCD - drug therapy

Answer 39

Assumes there is a chemical imbalance in the brain Corrected by drugs, either increase or decrease the levels of neurotransmitters in the brain

Question 40

Drug therapies - Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors

Answer 40

Standard treatment Increase certain neurotransmitter in the brain by preventing the reabsorption of serotonin SSRIs effectively increase its levels in the synapse and thus continue to stimulate the postsynaptic neuron Fluoxetine - 20mg typical dose, may increase if not benefitting to the patient, 3-4 months of daily use to make impact upon symptoms, 60mg a day if necessary

Question 41

Combining SSRIs with other treatment

Answer 41

When not effective after 3 to 4 months can be combined with other drugs Alternatives work well for some and not others Tricyclics - same effect on serotonin system as SSRIs, older type of antidepressant, severe side effects only used if SSRIs are not effective SNRIs - increase levels of serotonin as well as noradrenaline, antidepressant Used alongside CBT Drugs tackle emtional symptoms so CBT can be engaged with more effectively

Question 42

A03 for treatment of OCD

Answer 42

+ Drugs are cost effective and non disruptive - Drugs can have side effects - Some cases of OCD follow trauma

Question 43

Definition of depression

Answer 43

Mood disorder Affects the emotional state of those suffering from them, current emotional mood is distorted or inappropriate to circumstances Low mood and low energy levels

Question 44

Characteristics of depression

Answer 44

Symptoms must be causing distress or impaired functioning in social and/ or occupational roles Emotional - Lowered mood, anger, lowered self esteem Behavioural - Activity level (reduced energy or psychomotor agitation), disruption to sleep/eating, aggression and self harm Cognitive - poor concentration, dwelling on negative, absolutist thinking (everything is good or everything is bad)

Question 45

Beck's explanation for depression

Answer 45

Some people more vulnerable to depression than others Three parts to cognitive vulnerability : Faulty information processing - Fundamental errors in logic, selectively attend to negative aspects of a situation and ignore positive, black and white thinking, blow problems out of proportion Negative schemas - building block of knowledge, package of ideas we have about ourselves, depressed people have developed negative self schemas, interpret all the info about themselves in a negative way Negative triad - maladaptive responses, people with depression become trapped in a cycle of negative thoughts, view things in a negative way - Negative view of the self Negative view of the world Negative view of the future

Question 46

Ellis explanation of depression

Answer 46

Good mental health result of rational thinking, common irrational beliefs underlie depression, sufferers base their lives on these beliefs A - an activating event causes B - and individual's beliefs which results in C - a consequence Beliefs are subjective to cognitive biases, cause irrational thinking which produce undesirable behaviours

Question 47

Beck AO3 for depression

Answer 47

+ Practical application in CBT, forms the basis of cognitive behavioural therapy - It doesn't explain all aspects of depression, not all symptoms explained, complex disorder +Good supporting evidence, depression is associated with faulty info processing, negative self schemas, the triad of impairments

Question 48

Ellis A03 for depression

Answer 48

- Partial explanation, not all depression arises as a result of an obvious cause - It doesn't explain all aspects of depression, does not explain why some individual experience anger associated with their depression +Practical application in CBT, irrational negative beliefs are challenged and this can help to reduce depressive symptoms