Psychopathology Flashcards
Abnormality in statistical infrequency
More than two standard devaluations from the mean
Evaluation of statistical infrequency
+ objective- works out abnormality based on what is statistically infrequent. Value judgements won’t play a part. Focuses on only statistics making it more scientific
- some statistically infrequent behaviours are desirable. E.g. a high iq is infrequent but would be seen as a positive thing. This suggests that this definition alone cannot define abnormality.
Social Norms and what is considered abnormal
Accepted standards of behaviour in society.
Abnormal if they go against social norms
Evaluation of deviation from social norms
+ it distinguishes between desirable and undesirable behaviour. This means only negative behaviours are deemed as abnormal. This means we are less likely to attatch a stigma to those with desirable abnormalities
- can be seen as a form of social control. What is deemed as desirable is determined by society. Sometimes people need to go against social norms for positive change. E.g. Rosa parks & suffragettes
Features to indicated that a person is failing to function
Rosenhan and Seligman (1989)
1. Experiencing severe depression personal distress
2. They’re behaviour is maladaptive ( not helpful for acheiving life goals)
3. Irrational behaviour that cannot be explained in a logical way and causes others to feel discomfort
4. When others do not adhere to standard interpersonal expectations
Evaluation of failure to function adequately
+ can help individuals to recognise they need professional help. Mental health problems are occurring more frequently. Many people only focus on the more severe symptoms to identify when help is needed. This definition allows individuals to identify when they are failing to cope and seek professional help.
- may be quite normal to show these behaviours at certain points. Personal distress is quite normal in certain situations. Nearly all individuals suffer at some point in their lives. This does not make them abnormal. This may lead to mislabelling
Failure to function adequately def
Being unable to cope with day to day living
Difficulty holding down a relationship, holding down a job, or taking care of themsleves
Ideal mental health
Marie Jahoda (1958)
-no signs of distress and can cope it’s stress well
- thoughts and behaviours are rational and we have a realistic view of the world
- ability to self actualise and have a high self esteem
- do not rely on other people and are a master of our own environment
Evaluation of deviation from ideal mental health
+ takes a more positive view to defining mental illness. It focuses on defining desirable behaviour. The criteria list is extensive, mental health treatments can be guided around what is missing from this list
- far too optimistic. Very few of us will meet the whole criteria all of the time. For example if in a stressful situation you show signs of stress
Definitions of obsessions and compulsions
Obsessions- a reoccurring and unwanted thought
Compulsions- a repetitive behaviour done to alleviate anxiety caused by obsessions
Genetic explaination for OCD
Nestadt- meta analysis of 14 twin studies into OCD found a concordance rate of 68% for MZ twins and 31% for DZ twin.
The higher MZ concordance rate implies there is some genetic reason for OCD.
Mutated SERT gene affects levels of seretonin
OCD is believed to be polygenic with a theorised 200 genes responsible for it.
Evaluation for the genetic explaination of OCD
+ ozaki et al. Looked at two unrelated families and found that 6/7 participants with the SERT mutation had OCD.
- ignores the influence of the environment/ nurture. If OCD was only cause by genetics we would expect the concordance rate in MZ twins to be 100%. This shows the cause of OCD is not just genetics
Neural explaination for OCD- serotonin
A neurotransmitter that controls our mood. Low levels of serotonin have been found in those with OCD. Messages about regulating mood are not normally transmitted which may explain the intense anxiety felt by those with OCD which may then lead to obsessions
Neural explaination a for OCD- basal ganglia
A set of brain structures located at the base of the forebrain. One of their functions is related to making decisions surrounding movements that are likely to lead to positive consequences and and avoiding unpleasant things. And abnormality in the basal ganglia may lead to OCD.
Evaluation of neural explaination for OCD
+wise and rapoport. Found that OCD is common in sufferers of huntingtons chores, Parkinson’s and Tourette’. These three illnesses are movement disorders and all involve abnormalities in the basal ganglia.
- HOWEVER, not every sufferer of these disorders has OCD which suggests this cannot be the only explaination
+ OCD is often treated with the use of drugs such as SSRIs. They work by blocking the reuptake sites on the presynaptic neuron so that serotonin remains in the synapse for longer to increase the levels of serotonin. This then relieves the symptoms of OCD.
-HOWEVER, cause and effect is hard to determine. Whilst a relationship can be shown between OCD and serotonin, it cannot say that one causes the other.
Ethical issues with drug therapies
Not very empowering.
Patient has to do what they are told and doesn’t require any effort
Psychological therapies only lead to improvement through effort of the patient
This is more empowering for the patient
What is an SSRI
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. They are anti depressants that are prescribed to treat many disorders
How are SSRIs used for people with OCD
People with OCD reuptake serotonin too quickly.
SSRIs block reuptake sites on the presynaptic neuron, so serotonin remains in the synapse for longer meaning it has more of a chance to be taken up by the receptor sites on the post synaptic neuron
This increases serotonin levels
Decreases symptoms of OCD
Why is a tricyclic
An alternative for SSRIs. They work in a very similar way however they also work on other neurotransmitters. There do have more severe side effects so are usually used once SSRIs have failed
Evaluation of drug therapy to treat OCD
+ research to support the effectiveness of SSRIs. Soomro et al reviewed 17 studies and found SSRIs were more effective than placebos in reducing symptoms of OCD. 70% of those who took SSRIs said their symptoms decreased
+ cheap and require little effort from the patient. A months worth of SSRIs costs £4.21 to dispense, CBT costs hundred and requires effort on the patients part in terms of attending sessions and completing homework tasks
- side effects include anxiety and digestive , visual and sleeping problems. These won’t affect everyone but for some it will just be exchanging one problem for another.
- evidence suggests drugs work best when paired with CBT. Foe et al carried out a study using OCD patients found that chloropramine was more effective when combined with CBT. This limits the use of the drugs
Cognitive characteristics of a phobia
Fixations
Irrational beliefs
Inaccurate and unrealistic perceptions
Behavioural characteristics of a phobia
Avoidance
Panic
Endurance
Emotional characteristics of a phobia
Anxiety
Fear
Disproportionate to the actual threat of the phobia
2 processes of Mowrers 2 process model on how phobias are learnt
Process 1- acquisition through classical conditioning
A phobia may develop through the association of a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus
Process 2- maintenance through operant conditioning
If a person has a phobia if will induce anxiety
This is a negative experience they will want to remove
They will avoid the stimulus to remove the anxiety
This leads to a positive outcome( no anxiety)
This is known as negative reinforcement
Watson and Rayner (1920)
Audition of phobias
Conditioned an infant known as little Albert to fear rats.
Little Albert was originally I afraid of rats.
Little Albert was introduced to a rat and then a loud bang was made.
The Loud bang made him scared
This was repeated several times until the rat alone produced a fear response
Evaluation of mowrers 2 process model on how phobias are learnt
(Strengths only)
+ one strength is that it has useful implications for treating phobias. Therapies such as flooding and systematic desensitisation were created based off the idea that avoiding a phobia reinforces it.
+ Partial support from this model comes from Ohman et al. They tested classical conditioning as an explaination of fear aquisition. They presented participants with pictures of things that are logical to fear and things that were no logical to fear. They were given an electric shock while this happened. Fewer shocks were needed towards the things that were logical to fear. This supports classical conditioning but implies there may be a further explanation of phobias
Evaluation of mowrers 2 process model on how phobias are formed
( limitations only)
-only explains behavioural characteristics of phobias. However we know that behaviours are only one aspect of phobias. The 2 prepress model doesn’t necessarily explain where faulty cognitive thoughts come from
- only focusses on the nurture side of the nature/nurture argument. Seligman argued it is adaptive for us to fear things that could harm us. The theory goes our ancestors survived because they had these fears so avoided these dangerous objects. This explains how it was easier to condition these in Ohman et als research
Three stages of systematic desensitisation
1) learn relaxation techniques. Principle of reciprocal inhibition. E. G breathing techniques
2) creat an anxiety hierarchy. Therapist and patient create an anxiety hierarchy which lists events in order of how much anxiety they cause
3) gradual exposure. Work through the hierarchy starting with the lowest point and only moving on to the next once completely comfortable.
What is the principle of reciprocal inhibition
States it is impossible to feel two conflicting emotions at one time. E.g anxious and relaxed
Evaluation of systematic desensitisation
+ gilroy et al user 42 patients with a fear of spiders and each of them was treated using three 45- minute systematic desensitisation sessions. They were then compared to a control group who only learnt relaxation techniques. When followed up, those from the first group show less fear than the control group.
- works less well on fears that are thought to be evolutionary. These phobias are more difficult to counter condition because we are essentially trying to change our biology. This is a limitation as it doesn’t work for all kinds of phobias.
Explain flooding
Based on classical conditioning
Involves direct and immediate exposure
Sessions last longer then systematic desensitisation but less are needed
Prevents avoidance behaviour. Patients realised the stimulus is harmless as they have to endure it until they are completely calm. This is known as extinction. Conditioned stimulus is presented without unconditioned stimulus.
Evaluation of flooding
+ nesbitt (1973). A person with a 7 year fear of phobias was required to ride up and down escalators repeatedly. She was initially accompanied by therapist but after 27 mins could be alone and after 29 mins has no anxiety. A 6 month follow up confirmed fear had not returned
- can be extremely traumatic and unpleasant. Wolpe (1969) reported a client who had to be hospitalised because flooding made her so anxious. This also means dropout rates are very high. This raises questions about whether this is an appropriate practice.
Cognitive characteristics of depression
Negative thoughts
Poor concentration
Focus of negatives
Behavioural characteristics of depression
Loss of energy
Change in sleeping/eating habits
Aggressive behaviour
Emotional characteristics of depression
Low mood
Anger
Low self-esteem
Factors leading to becks triad
1) Faulty information processing- people with depression tend to focus on the negatives of a situation
2) Negative self-schema- a negative view of how we see ourselves
3) the negative triad- the faulty information processing and negative self scheme results
Becks negative triad (1967)
Negative views about the world
Negative views about the future
Negative views about oneself
Evaluation of Becks negative triad
Evidence suggests this theory makes individuals vulnerable to being depressed.
Lewinson et al-
1507 students questionnaires to measure several things including negative thinking about themselves, the world and their future. They were reassessed a year later and those with more negative thinking were more likely to be diagnosed with depression
+ useful applications
Makes it possible to treat depression by changing these negative thoughts to more positive ones. CBT is often used for those with depression. The success of this came from becks work
Ellis’ ABC model stands for
Activating event
Beliefs
Consequences
Evaluation of Ellis’ ABC model
+ had useful applications for treating depression. Uses theory of depression to develop rational emotive behavioural therapy which tackles irrational thoughts
- can be considered reductionist. Only focusses on one aspects of depression and ignores the bigger picture. Ignores biological explanation and only treats for cognitive explanations.
4 steps of Becks CBT
Thought catching- negative beliefs are identified
Patient as scientist- patient generates hypotheses to test validity of thoughts
Homework tasks- patient tests hypotheses
Cognitive restructuring- patient uses evidence to dispute negative thoughts and replaces them with positive ones
