psychopathology

Question 1

definitions of abnormality

Answer 1

deviation from social norms
failure to function adequately
statistical infrequency
deviation from ideal mental health

Question 2

deviation from social norms outline

Answer 2

Every society has norms- standards of behaviour set by social group. For example, it is a social norm to wear clothes when walking outside. According to DSN, any behaviour that goes against unwritten rules and norms of society= abnormal. This is concerned with behaviour which is antisocial/ undesirable, acting different from what we expect in everyday society. e.g APD(anti-social personality disorder). impulsive , aggression, irrational behaviour , which is therefore considered abnormal- cannot conform to societys moral standards.

Question 3

evaluation of the devation from social norms definition

Answer 3

strength-
sipports general ideas of abnormality- it has face validity. It supports general view of what people believe abnormal is. For example, someone with schizophrenia would deviate from social norms as they may be talking to themselves or showing obviousl irrational decision making behaviour. This means it is easy for people in general population to identify abnormality within people they know or around them and get them the right support from professionals. DSN definition also makes it easier for clinicians toidentify and treat illnesses and abnormality- can be used to lead to valid diagnosis

weakness - too culture specific. For example, hearing voices is socially acceptable(or wven seen as a gift) in some cultures but would be seen as a sign of mental abnormality in the UK. This is a weakness because social norms vary tremendiously from one community to another. Based on this definition, a person may be diagnosed as abnormal based on the cultural standards of the clinician. Even though that baheviour may not be abnormal based on their own cultural standards. Therefore, this definition needs to be used with caution as it has to consider a persons culture or it nay lead to misdiagnosis.

Question 4

Failure to function adequatley - outline

Answer 4

Behaviour is considered abnormal when it means an individual cannot cope with day to day life and cannot fufill responsibilities that are expected of them. If a behaviour causes enough distress, it will lead to inability to function and work and participate in relationships. All this is therefore a sign of abnormality.
- may also stop you from experiencing positive emotions or behaviours- cant experience a full range of emotions.
For instance, Rosenhumand Seligeman suggested related characterstics include irrational behaviour and causing observer discomfort. - making those around them feel anxious and uncomfortable. I.e not eating, maintaining hygeine or leaving the house.

Question 5

evaluations of failure to function adequately

Answer 5

strength- thereis real life application as it helps us clearly distinguish between mild and severe cases of mental abnormality. For example, many people experience sadness or anxiety some of the time. However, the key difference between those diagnosed with mental illnesses and the general population is those who are daignosed find that their depression/ anxiety seriously affects their day to day life, i.e they cannoy go to work. It failure to function adequaltly helps us make distinctions between different severity of mental health problems - helps us identify whp can and cannot cope with everyday life and helps diagnose and provide the appropriate treatment therefore it is useful in diagnosis and improving lives increasing the validity as a tool for defining abnormality.

weakness: abnormality is not always associated with failing to function adequately - some individuals with metal health issues apear to be functioning normally. for example, Harold shipman was a doctor who was responsible for the death of over 200 of his patients over a 23 year period, In spite of his appaling crimes, Shipman functions adequately and was a seen as a respectable doctor. Clearly abnormal showed traits of APD but did not display an inability to function e.g he maintained his job, looked after himself and had professional and personal relationships. According to the definition, he would be considered healthy. Therefore, ffA can be considered an inadequate definition as it can lead to an invalid diagnosis.

Question 6

deviation from ideal mental helath- outline

Answer 6

• pos attitudes towards the self- having self respect and a positive self concept.
• self actualisation and personal growth- having a motivation to achieve our full potential
• being resistant to stress- able to cope with stresful situations and anxiety
• personal autonomy- being independent, self reliant and make your own personal decisions.
• accurate perception of reality- percieving the world in a non distorted fashion. Having an objective and realistic view of the world
• enviornmental mastery- being competant in all aspects of life and able to meet the demands of any sitaution. Having the flexibility to adapt to changing life circumstances.
  the more characteristics individuals fail to meet and the further they are away from reakising individual characteristics, the more abnormal they are.

Question 6

statistical infrequency

Answer 6

abnormal behaviour is rare(uncommon) in general population. If very few people show a behaviour, that behaviour is abnormal. Once behaviour is measured(mean, median , mode are calculated.), any behaviour which strays away from the mean is abnormal. Measure characteristics and normal distribution curve with rare behaviour on each side - i.e if 2.5% on each side, 1/200 ppl suffer from schizophrenia.

Question 7

evaluations of statistical infrequency

Answer 7

strength- statistical infrequency definition is objective and sometimes appropriate, once a way of colecting data has been established and a cut off point has been identified it provides an objective way of deciding who is abnormal. For examplem it can be used to define and diagnose someone suffering from IDD- people wiyh an IQ in the range of 85-115 are considered normal, only 2 % have a score below 70%. Those with below 70% are rare and therefore labelled as having IDD. Therefore, SI provides an objective measurement and diagnosis not reliant on subjective interprestation of diagnosis criteria. SI helps doctors produce reliable and valid/ accurate diagnosises of abnormality

weakness-
misdiagnosis of desireable and undesireable behaviours.
For example, a low IQ is statistically just as abnormal as a very high IQ (above 160) but a high IQ is typically seen as desireable, this is an issue as high IQ is rare, it will be considered an abnormality. Furthermore, depression effects 1 in 5 peple in the UK, making it a statistically common behaviour. However there is a general agreement that depression is a mental abnormality. Thus SI often leads to inaccurate diagnosis of rare desireable behaviours and common undesireable nbehaviours. Reducing its validity as a definition of abnormality

Question 8

evaluations of deviation from ideal mental health

Answer 8

strengths- it is a pos approach to viewing abnormality, it can contribute to accurate diagnosis. It has contributed to psychology and therapy in many ways. Firstly, it offers a pos view on mental disorders by focusing on behaviour and traits that are desireable rather than undesireable. This went on to contribute to the positive psychology movement and reduce the stigma around mental illness. Furthermore the broad nature of the criteria allows the definition to be comprehensive diagnostic tool, making it almost impossible not to detect mental illness. This is a strength because the range of criteria identified by Jahoda makes it a valuable definition of abnormality within psychology. Thus increasing the validity of the definition.

weakness- it sets an unrealistically high standard for mental health. A limitation of DIMHD is that the criteria it sets is an unrealistically high. For example, due to the stresses of everday life, very few people would match all the criteria laid down by Jahoda, and almost nobody achieves all of them at the same time or keeps them up for very long. This is an issue as according to the DFIMH definition, the majority of people would be considered abnormal and in need of hekp. But other research has shown that is not true and that prevalence of mental abnormality is much lower. THis is a limit as if definition is followed it will lead to innacurate diagnosis.

another weakness- cultural biases characteristicas are rooted in western societies and a western view of personal growth and achievement. For example, self actualisation may be seen as a key goal in life within some culture (i.e western, individualistic, cultures), but not other cultures (i.e non-western, collectivist, cultures). This is a problem as in collectivistic cultures it may be normal for elder in the family to decide the young persons future or be involed in making major life decisions, therefore, it may be seen as abnormal to go after your own goals if they are in conflict with those of your own culture. Thus the criteria is too culture specific and may not be valid. In collectivist cultures and may lead to misdaignosises if applied to these cultures.

Question 9

what is the definition of a phobia and the 5 phobisas/ what are they?

Answer 9

phobias are included in the diagnostic and statistical manul 5 within the category of anxiety disorders. They are defined as instances of irrational fears that produce as avoidance of the feared object or situation. The DSMS categorizes phobias into 3 main types.

Specific phobias- specific objects or situations, such as animal phobias or fears of lifts and planes.

social phobias- fear of situations involving other people, most scared of public speaking but someone with a social phobia is afraid of any activity preformed in public- i.e eating.

agoraphobia- fear of public spaces this can result in people being afraid to go out of their home, so they are unable to go to work or even to shop for_ _ _ _ _ _most serious type. many are also prone to panic attacks when they are in public places.

Question 10

behaviourist approach to explaining phobias- AO1

Answer 10

the two way process model- the ehavioural approach emphasizes the role of learning in the acquisition of behaviour. The approach focuses on behaviour- what we can see and it is geared towards explaining avoidance, enducance and panic aspects of phobias. Mowrer(1960) proposed the two process model based on the behavioural approach to phobias. This states that phobias are acquired(learned in the first place) by classical conditioning and then continue because of operant conditioning.

acquisition by classical conditioning:
CC involves learning to associate something we initially have no fear of (NS) with something that already triggers a fear response(UCS)
association response is produced by the UCS also produced by the now phobic stimulus (CS) this means the aquistion of a phobia has been complete.

maintenance by operant conditioning:
conditioned responses e.g a learnwed fear decline over time if not for maintenance. According to mowrer- maintained through OC- negative reinforcement. Individual avoids threatening/ unpleasant situation acts as desireable action- end the upleasent experience of anxiety which is reinforcing avoidance behaviour making it more likely to happen again and thus we continue to avoid phobic object / situation= maintaining the phobia.

Question 11

behavioural approach to treating phobias- AO1,
Systematic desensitisation

Answer 11

why it works/ aim :
- it is impossible to experience 2 opposite emotions fear and relaxation at the same time.
-SD uses CC to replace irrational fears and anxieties associated to phobic objects with relaxation.
- learned relaxation techniques is used by clients and replaces anxiety as the client is exposed in stages of rising intensity to phobic stimulus- be it object or situation.

three processes involved in systenatic desensitisation:
1) anxiety hierarchy- STEP1: the therapist and patient together construct an anxiety heirarchy- list of situations related to the phobic stimulus that provokes anxiety, arranged in order from least to most frightening (low to high intensity)

2)relaxation- therapist uses relaxation techniques to teach the patient to relax as deeply as possible- might involve breathing excercises or mental imagery techniques.

3) exposure- finally, the patient gradually moves up the anxiety heirarchy in a relaxed state- this takes place across several sessions, starting at the bottom of the herarchy. when the patient can stay relaxed in the presence of the lower levels of the stimulus, they move up the heirarchy. Treatment is successful when the patient can stay relaxed in situations high in the anxiety heirarchy.

Question 12

behavioural approach to treating phobias- AO1, flooding

Answer 12

HOW DOES IT WORK?
direct and immediate exposure to phobic stimulus for extended periods of time/ sessions can be 2-3 hours- without a gradual build- up in an anxiety heirarchy. Patients are prevented from avoidance of phobic stimulus- stay in presence of PS until anxiety/ fear has receded and phobic response is exhausted.

WHY DOES IT WORK?
flooding stops repsonse very quickly this may be because the patient does not have the option t avoid the phobic stimulus, and so soon learns that it is harmless. In terms of CC, thi process is called EXTINCTION. This is when the conditioned stimulus is encountered without the unconditioned stimulus, the result is that the conditioned stimulus no longer produces the conditioned response.

Question 13

Behaviourist explanation of phobias- AO3- strength, research support for the two process model

Answer 13

Eval 1
p: Strength - research support for the two process model -
Ev: For example, research by Watson & Rayner who created a phobia in a 9 month old baby called ‘Little Albert’.
Albert showed no unusual anxiety at the start of the study. Researchers presented a white rat along with making a frightening noise by banging an iron bar close to Albert’s ear. Eventually Albert became frightened when he saw a rat even without the noise. The rat then became a conditioned stimulus (CS) that produced a conditioned response (CR) of fear.
Exp: This demonstrates that we learn phobias by pairing a stimulus we are already scared of, with a new stimulus. By doing this, we go on to develop a phobia of a stimulus that was initially neutral.
L- This adds validity to the learning explanation of phobias.

Question 14

Behaviourist explanation of phobias- AO3- strength- 2 process model, went beyond W& Rs concept of how CC leads to phobias

Answer 14

P: Strength: two process model - went beyond W & R’s concept of how CC leads to phobias.
Ev: It explained how phobias could be MAINTAINED over time and this had important implications for therapies because it explains why patients need to be exposed to the feared stimulus. This led to practical applications through treatments like flooding where patients are prevented from avoiding the phobic stimulus and this eventually helps them get over their phobia.
Exp: Furthermore, research from Ougrin et al showed that flooding is comparable in effectiveness in treating phobias to treatments like CBT, suggesting the underlying assumptions of the two-process model are valid.
L: Increase utility and validity of model.

Question 15

Behavioursit explanation of phobias- AO3- weakness- 2 process model could be considered incomplete explanation of phobias

Answer 15

P: Weakness - two-process model - could be considered an incomplete explanation of phobias.
Ev: Bounton (2007) points out that evolutionary factors have an important role in phobias too. For example, we easily acquire phobias of things that have been a source of danger in our evolutionary past, such as fears of snakes as it is adaptive to have these phobias. Whereas it is much rarer having a phobia of guns or cars which can be much more dangerous to us today. Seligman called this biological preparedness - the innate predisposition to acquire such fears.
Exp: This is a strength as it shows that our evolutionary past can be a mediating factor (in addition to experiences) in developing phobias.
L: therefore the model could be seen as invalid as it doesnt consider all factors that could affect the acquisition of a phobia

Question 16

Behaviourist explanation of phobias- weakness- could be an alt exp for how phobias are aquired

Answer 16

P: Weakness - could be an alternative explanation for how phobias are acquired.
Ev: The cognitive approach proposes that the phobias may develop as a result of irrational thinking (for example, a person in a lift might think that ‘I might get trapped in here’). Thoughts like these then contribute to feelings of anxiety that lead a person to show the emotional symptoms of phobias and avoidance of the phobic stimulus (like always taking the stairs), a key behavioural symptom.
Exp: Since the TPM does not account for this, it can be seen as a very simplistic model that does not consider importation cognitive mediating factors that affect how phobias are acquired
L: Model reduces in validity.

Question 17

Behaviourist treatment of phobias- AO3 , strength- supporting evidence for effectiveness of SD

Answer 17

P: Strength - supporting evidence for effectiveness of SD
Ev: Gilroy et al. (2003) followed up 42 who had been treated for spider phobia in three 45-minute systematic desensitisation sessions. A control group was treated by relaxation without exposure. At both three months, and 33 months after the treatment, the systematic desensitization group were significantly less fearful than the control
group.
Exp: This shows that SD is an effective treatment of phobias and the positive impacts of SD are long lasting making it a useful treatment for phobias.
L: Increases Validity

Question 18

Strength, behaviourist treatment of phobias AO3- flooding often a more appropriate and time efficient treatment than others

Answer 18

P: Strength - flooding often a more appropriate and time efficient treatment than others
Ev: Ougrin (2011) compared behavioural therapies to cognitive therapies and found behavioural therapies to be significantly quicker. Some cognitive therapies such as CBT require patients to keep diaries throughout their week and also do homework tasks to try and overcome disorders. Flooding procedures in general require less conscious effort
on the patient’s part compared to psychotherapies where patients must play a more active part in their treatment.
Exp: This means patients are more likely to continue with the treatment with a lower attrition rate, and as a
consequence overcome their phobia.
L: Therefore, this demonstrates why such treatments may be more effective than cognitive treatment

Question 19

Behaviourist treatment of phobias- weakness F+ SD may not be addressing the real cause of the phobia

Answer 19

P: Weakness - F + SD may not be addressing the real cause of the phobia.
Ev: The treatments have been criticized by psychodynamic model, which claims that behavioural therapies focus only on symptoms and ignores the causes of abnormal behaviour. Psychoanalysts claim that the symptoms are merely the tip of the iceberg - the real cause of phobias may be traumatic childhood experiences which are repressed into the unconscious mind.
Exp: However, they believe that the behaviorist therapy does not deal with these issues, it rather tries to alleviate the anxiety caused by it. In long term, this will lead to the phobia resurfacing in a different form (symptom substitution).
L: Therefore, using behavioural therapies such as these to treat phobias may be ineffective in the long run.

Question 20

Behaviourist treatment for phobias- AO3, weakness, traumatic for the patient

Answer 20

P: Weakness - Traumatic for the patient.
Ev: For example, flooding requires the patients to consent to giving up their right to withdraw, and as a result this can lead to patients experiencing extreme emotion and sometimes physical symptoms such as fainting or breathing problems.
Exp: This is a problem as the stressful nature of flooding means that people may be put off from trying it, especially people who have existing heart/respiratory issues.
Exp 2: Furthermore, people attempting flooding may at times have to stop to seek medical attention for sudden physiological problems triggered by stress if the treatment is stopped or abandoned it, may make the phobia even
worse.
L: Therefore, SD could be considered a more appropriate, effective and ethical treatment as it gives the patient full control and allows them to withdraw at any time, reducing the credibility of flooding.

Question 21

Behaviourial characteristics of phobias

Answer 21

Panic - Panic in response to phobic stimulus. This may involve a range of behaviours including crying, running, screaming, freezing-fainting or collapsing
Avoidance - People with a phobia make conscious effort to avoid coming into contact with the phobic stimulus. This can make it hard to go about daily life e.g. not going to places where they might be encountered
Endurance/ Freeze Response - the alternative to avoidance is endurance, in which a sufferer remains in the presence of the phobic stimulus but continues to experience high levels of anxiety. May ‘freeze’.

Question 22

Emotional characteristics of phobias

Answer 22

• Anxiety - phobias are examples of anxiety disorders. By definition they involve an emotional response of anxiety. Anxiety can be long term.
Anxiety prevents the sufferer relaxing and makes it very difficult to experience any positive emotion. They experience feelings of Worry.
Fear is the immediate and extremely unpleasant response we experience when we encounter or think about the phobic stimulus. They experience feelings of Terror.
Emotional responses are unreasonable - the emotional responses experienced in relation to phobic stimuli go beyond what is reasonable. It is disproportionate to any threat posed.

Question 23

Cognitive characteristics of phobias

Answer 23

• Decrease in concentration - people with phobias often find it very difficult to concentrate and therefore they have an inability to complete tasks when the phobic object or situation is
Around.
• Irrational beliefs - a phobic may hold unfounded (irrational) thoughts in relation to phobic stimuli that do not have any basis in reality, for example, that spider can kill me instantly’
• Selective attention - increased awareness of the phobic stimulus
• Distorted perceptions - Perception of phobic stimulus may be inaccurate and unrealistic e.g.
“that spider is huge’ (in reality it is small)

Question 24

Depression definition

Answer 24

Depression is a mood disorder characterised by extreme sadness. To be diagnosed with major depression, the DSM states an individual must experience at least 5 from a list of symptoms including; one of depressed mood and/or loss of interest or pleasure in most activities, nearly every day for at least two weeks.

Question 25

Emotional characteristics of depression

Answer 25

Emotional Characteristics • Depressed Mood - a key characteristic is the ever present and overwhelming feelings of intense sadness / hopelessness and lowered mood in everyday life. • Loss of Interest and Pleasure - lack of enthusiasm associated with a lack of concern or pleasure in daily activities • Worthlessness - constant feelings of low self-worth and or inappropriate/unnecessary feelings of guilt

Question 26

Cognitive characteristics of depression

Answer 26

Cognitive Characteristics • Reduced Concentration- difficulty in paying and maintaining concentration and/or slowed down thinking and difficulty making decisions. This interferes with everyday work. • Negative Beliefs about Self-experience persistent negative beliefs about themselves and their abilities (Negative Schemas) • Suicidal Thoughts - depressives can have constant thoughts of death and/or suicide.

Question 27

Behavioural characteristics of depression

Answer 27

Behavioural Characteristics •Change in Activity - depressed people have reduced amounts of energy resulting in fatigue, lethargy and high levels of inactivity. In some cases depression can lead to the opposite effect - known as psychomotor agitation. Agitated individuals struggle to relax and may end up pacing up and down. • Change in Eating Patterns - people may experience a change in appetites which may mean they eat more or less than usual, and have significant weight changes (5%) either gaining or losing weight. Change in Sleeping Patterns - Sleeping less (Insomnia) or excessive sleeping (Hypersomnia) Social Impairment - there can be reduced levels of social interaction with friends and relations. o Reduced speech - people with depression may speak slower, take a longer time to complete the same number of words, and display longer pauses between words and sentences. • Reduced movement

Question 28

Cognitive approach to explaining depression - becks triad and negative self schema AO1

Answer 28

Explains it as faulty and irrational thought processes and perceptions Negative self schemas develop in childhood and adolescence as a result of rejection by parents or friends in the form of criticism and exclusion, or perhaps the loss of a close family member. This filters into adult hood = negative framework to view life in a pessimistic fashion( struggle w relationships) Beck says depressed people develop neg schemas about self= think in a negative way. Becks negative triad (1967) Believed depression caused by negative thinking, especially about oneself and that neg thinking comes before the development of depression. Neg cog triad: depression has 3 components collectively known as cognitive triad These neg views affect cognitive processing- memory and problem solving. As well as emotions. They each feed into each other. Starts with negative of self- beginning in childhoods as negative self schemas from experiences individuals see themselves as being helpless, worthless and inadequate. Feeds into neg view of the world from life experiences- where obstacles and issues are perceived within ones environment that cannot be dealt with. Deeds into negative view of the future- where personal worthlessness is seen as blocking any improvements.

Question 29

AO1- cognitive approach to explaining depression, cognitive biases

Answer 29

Cognitive bias- people with neg schemas become prone to making errors in their thinking- i.e selective attention means they will focus selectively on certain aspects of a situation (almost always negative) ignore equally relevant info. Over generalisation- make a sweeping conclusion on the basis of a single event. Their negative schemas together with cognitive biases maintain the negative triad.

Question 30

PCog approach to explain depression- Ellis ABC model 1957

Answer 30

Albert Ellis believed that depressives mistakingly blame external events for the unhappiness. However, it is their interpretation of these events that is to blame for the distress. He proposed that the key to depression day in irrational beliefs. According to this model depression is produced by the irrational thoughts triggered by unpleasant events in his ABC model. A refers to an activating event is circumstance, event or experience that starts things, e.g. failing an exam and this will lead to a belief B is the belief about the event which will be either rational or irrational. Musterbation- the tendency to create rigid, unrealistic and demanding rules for oneself often uses thrases like “I must”, “I should” or “I have to” - belief that one must always strive for perfection. This leads to frustration and stress feelings of failure when those Unrealistic demands are not met. Utopianism- belief that life is always meant to be fair or perfect. See is the consequence, your reaction to the beliefs, rational thoughts, lead to healthy emotions and reactions. Irrational thoughts lead to unhealthy emotions and reactions. Which in turn can lead to depression. Individuals who become depressed interpret unpleasant events in excessively negative or threatening ways at point B. It is not the activating event that causes the consequence, consequence is caused by the beliefs about the activating event.

Question 31

Cognitive approach explanations - AO3 strength research to support becks cognitive explanation.

Answer 31

Eval 1 P: Strength - Research to support Beck's cognitive explanation. Ev: Koster et al's study used student volunteers who took part in an attention task and were presented with positive, negative and neutral words. They found that depressed participants spent longer attending to the negative words than the non-depressed group. Exp: This result demonstrates selective tention and cognitive bias in people with depression that makes them attend to negative information and aspects of their life rather than the postive and reinforces their negative L: Increases validity of cognitive explanation of depression,

Question 32

Cog exp of depression- practical application in treatment of depression

Answer 32

Strength - Elis ABC modeland Beck's copnitive explanation of depression - practical applications in the treatment of depression. Ev. Understanding that negative schemas lead to depression led to development of treatments like CBT which targets faulty schemas and beliefs, breaks them down and replaces them with positive beliefs to treat symptoms of depression. Furthermore, Beck reviewed the effectiveness of CBT and found it highly effective in treating depression. Exp/.: As the treatment is valid, the underwing assumptions of the cognitive approach to depression that the treatment is based on is also valid.

Question 33

Cog exp of depression AO3 weakness- incomplete

Answer 33

Eval 3 P: Weakness - Incomplete Ev: For example, it underplays the biological aspects and the role of genetic inheritance in development of depression Research from McGuffin found that the concordance rate for depression was 20% for DZ twins, compared to 46% for M2 twins. This shows that as the proportion of genetic similarity increases, so does the likelihood of both twins having depression. Exp: This is a weakness as it suggests that biological factors also play a role in the development of depression. To develop a full understanding of depression it is important to take a more holistic outlook which includes biological and psychological theories. L: Since the cognitive approach does not do that, it can be considered incomplete.

Question 34

Cog exp of depression ao3- weakness supporting evidence is largely correlational

Answer 34

Eval 4 P: Weakness - supporting evidence is largely correlational. Exp: This means that it is not possible to determine if negative schemas/irrational beliefs are the cause of depression or if these cognitive features are a consequence of having depression. If the former is true, the cognitive theory is validated. However, if the latter is true there must be an alternate cause for depression that is beyond the scope of the cognitive approach. Ev: For example, depressive tendencies and moods are developed from imitating role models showing similar behaviours. Since the supporting research behind cognitive explanations of depression inconclusive and has questionable validity, this undermines the validity of the approach itself.

Question 35

biological approach to explaining ocd- genetic

Answer 35

Candidate genes increase likelihood of developing disease. 5 HTT(serotonin gene) responsible for the transportation of serotonin in the neuron. Inert/ defective 5 HTT genes = sertonin transportation is disrupted = less serotonin. Ozeki 2003- found a mutation of the 5HTT gene in 6/7 people in a family with OCD. OCD also suspected of being polygenic (controlled by multiple genetic factors ) taylor 2013 study found 230 genes linked to OCD/ serotonin transportation

Question 36

biological approach to explaining ocd- genetic AO3 strength

Question 37

Biological approach to explaining OCD- AO3 weakness

Question 38

neural explanation for OCD:

Answer 38

abnormal levels of neurotransmitters: - serotonin= responsible for regulating mood by facilitating synaptic transmission from one neurone to another. - in a person with OCD serotonin removed too quickly will mean no chance to pass on the signal. - therefore, low levels of sertonin= leads to issues with moods associated with OCD. - also dopamine levels are abnormally high in OCD- linked with anxiety and the inability to stop focusing on obsessive thoughts in OCD.

Question 39

neural explanation for ocd AO1

Answer 39

ABNORMAL BRAIN CIRCUITS : several areas in the frontal lobes of the brain are thought be abnormal in people with OCD. the role of the orbito frontal cortex which sends through worry signals to the thalamus. For example, potential germ hazards. This is mediated by the CAUDATE NUCLEUS within the BASAL GANGLIA which suppresses teh minor worries from the OFC and prevents us from actig on every minor worry letting through only major worries. The thalumus is then alerted to the worry signals initiating a reaction . HOWEVER IN SOMEONE WITH OCD: teh orbito frontal cortex sends the worry signals. the caudate nucleus is damaged, thus HYPERSENSITIVE, instead of supressing minor signals, all the major and minor signals from teh OFC go to the thalumus. Thalumus then confirms and recieves the minor signals too- creating a worry signal- leading to acting on worries, compulsive repetitive actions.

Question 40

Biological treatment to OCD - SSRIS

Answer 40

selective serotnin reuptake inhibitors: e.g prozac. since OCD is due to low levels of serotonin, SSRIs= increase levels of serotonin in the synapse. This regulates mood swings and decreases anxiety caused by the OCD. Its works by blocking the reuptake back into the pre- synaptic neurone leaving more serotonin in the synapse. More influnce activity of the post SN= prologed activation of serotonin receptor sites, making transmission of inhibitory signals to the enxt neurone easier and addressing the deficinecy of sertonin in the synapse. In order to see a reduction in symptons/ or for the SSRIs to be effecrive, needs 3-4 months of daily use.

Question 41

biological treatment for OCD - tricyclics

Answer 41

SRIs- sertonin reuptake inhibitors. works the same as SSRIs, but less selective in their action, blocks the mechanism for reabsorbing serotonin and neuroadrenaline into pre- SN. More of the NTs left in synapse means proloning activation of serotin in receptor sites this making transmission to the next neurone easier. This is used when SSRIs are not effectrive- tricyclics have the advantage of targetting more then one neurotransmitter.

Question 42

Psychology, biological explanation OCD AO3, supporting evidence through twin studies

Answer 42

P:Strength - supporting evidence - twin studies. Ev: Nestadt et al - reviewed previous twin studies into OCD - found 68% MZ CR + 31% DZ CR Exp: Shows - as the prop of shared genes increase from DZ twins (50%) to MZ twins (100%) - likelihood of both twins developing OCD also increases. - OCD develops due to genetic factors + is inherited. L- Adds validity

Question 43

Psychology, biological explanaition of ocd, genetic weakness

Answer 43

P - Weakness - too simplistic + the diathesis stress model might offer a better explanation. Ev 1: For example, according to this model certain genes leave the individual more vulnerable to OCD. Whether an individual actually does develop OCD is influenced by environmental factors (stressors). Ev 2: Cromer et al (2007) found that over half of the OCD patients in their sample had a traumatic experience in their past, and that OCD was more severe in those with more than one trauma. Exp: Shows - OCD cannot entirely be genetic in origin + traumatic events may act as a contributory trigger - starts OCD tendencies - need to consider genetic + environmental factors - holistic understanding of OCD. L: undermines validity - incomplete

Question 44

Strength, Biological explanation to treating OCD

Answer 44

Eval 1 P: Strength - practical applications in the development of SSRIs Ev: Led to use of SSRI to treat depression - block the reuptake of serotonin into the pre-syn neuron -prolongs the influence of serotonin on post-syn neuron - Soomro et al reviewed evidence into the impact of SSRI on OCD - found they were effective in 70% of cases EXp: As SSRIs = effective treatment - infer that the underlying assumption that the treatment is based on (from the bio exp of OCD\ must also be valid. Li Increases validity of neural explanation + shows can improve lives

Question 45

Ocd weakness biological explanation neural

Answer 45

Eval 2 P: Weakness - supporting evidence is correlational Ev: For example research from brain scan studies show an association between increased activity in certain brain areas (e.g. the orbitofrontal cortex) and OCD. Exp1: As it is only an association it doesn't prove that those brain areas play a role in causing OCD. This is a problem as these biological abnormalities could be a consequence of OCD rather than its cause. Exp2: Furthermore, if this is the case then the cause of OCD may be better explained by another approach - for example, learning a cleanliness OCD through observation imitation + reinforcement of compulsive behaviour. L: raises questions about supporting evidence and therefore neural explanation

Question 46

Biological treatments to OCD- strength f

Answer 46

P-Supporting evidence - effectiveness of SSRIs in treatment of OCD Ev: Soomro (2008) reviewed 17 studies on use of SSRIs to treat OCD. Found SSRIs more effective than placebo in reducing OCD symptoms: up to 3 months after treatment. Symptoms decline for around 70%. Of remaining 30%, alt. drug treatments/ combo of drug + psychological treatments effective for some. Exp: Shows that 1. SSRI is effective - remission in most of the cases when SSRIs are taken. 2. SSRI is a flex. treatment - can be dispensed alongside psych. trt to make a lasting impact on OCD symptoms L: No need for link, effectiveness already referred to.

Question 47

Biological treatment for ocd weakness not lasting

Answer 47

P: Problem with drugs - not a lasting cure - risk of relapse after discontinuation. Ev: Simpson et al - 45% of patients on clomioramine (SRI relapsed back into OCD symptoms within 12 weeks after finishing course. Relapse rate was hisher than that for patients who went through psychological therapy (12%) Exp: Shows that - Drugs do not cure OCD toroven by high relapse ratel + They only temporarily treat the symptoms of OCD + For more long term treatment, patients would be better off using psychological therapies. L: This shows biological treatments like drugs are limited in their effectiveness.

Question 48

Biological treatment for Ocd- AO3, drug therapy not applicable foe all patients.

Answer 48

P: Weakness - drug therapy not app. for all patients - some may suffer from side-effects. Ev: Common side-effects when taking SSRls include nausea, headache, insomnia, loss of sex drive (Soomro et al 2008). Tricyclic drugs (clomipramine): even more serious side effects: hallucination, weight gain, irregular heartbeat. Exp: 1. This Reduces effectiveness of SSRIs people may stop taking them + drop the treatment to avoid SEs. 2. Reduces appropriateness of SSRIs vs. psychological treatments like CBT (which have no SE) As people with existing cardiovascular/sleep conditions cannot take drug therapy. L: No need for link, appropriateness/effectiveness already referred to.

Question 49

Biological treatment of OCD, strength- better preferred treatment:

Answer 49

Eval 4 P: Strength - Drugs often the preferred treatment for OCD: Ev1: Non-disruptive to patient's life - requires little effort from user and barely any time compared to CBT: patient has to attend regular appointments + have hwk to complete Exp1:means that for patients who do not suffer side effects - likely to have low attrition rates + patients more likely to stick to treatment + complete it. Ev2 -Drugs are also a good value for health service providers like NHS: as cheaper than psych treatment: as do not require a therapist to administer treatment. Exp2/L -Since drugs are easily dispensable + cost effective-> increases appropriateness of drugs for organisations like NHS.

Question 50

OCD- symptoms

Answer 50

Behavioural- repetitive compulsions to reduce anxiety Emotional- anxiety/ distress, guilt/ disgust Cognitive- reoccurring/ persistant thoughts, selective attention, catastrophic,

Question 51

phobias symptoms

Answer 51

behavioural symptoms: panic, from phobic stimuus- screaming freexing fainting. Avoidance- concious effort to avoid phobic stimulus. endurance/ freeze response- remains in the presense of phobic stimulus but remain in high anxiety - freeze. emotional characteristics: anxiety- an emotional response of anxiety as it is an anxiety disorder. can be long term, experience feelings of worry. fear- immediate and extremely unpleasent experience we feel when we encounter/ think about the phobic stimulus. Emotional responses are unreasonable- they go beyond what is reasonable, disproportionate to any threat faced. cognitive characteristics- decreased concentration, unable to complete tasks when phobic stimulus is around. irrational beleifs- irrational thoughts in relation to the stimulus- it could kill me. selective attention- increased awareness of the phobic stimulus.