approaches Flashcards
wundt and the emergence of psychology as a science
wundts contribution to psychology
before wundt, psychology was more philosophical, less research based.
* wundt opened the first institute for experimental psychology. Univesity of Leipzig, Germany, 1879. first experimental lab for psychology.
* Usage of introspection (systematic analysis of our concious esperience of stimulus. ) he had ppts listen to a stimulus- in which he analysed the experience by its componants as in images and sensations.
* all of this was done whilst focusing on an inert object a ticking metronome
* he conducted research on cognitive behaviour.
wundt and the emergence of psychology as a science
evals- strength, paved way for future research
wundt focused on systematic analysis of concious behaviour/ reactions wanting to understand mental processes.
- this was used as the foundation for cognitive psychologists whom use empiracal measures and process of interference to investigate mental processes in a more objective way.
- Wundts research was therefore highly influential on shaping it to the way it is in modern day and leading psychology to become more credible as a scientific discipline
wundt and the emergence of psychology as a science
evals- weakness- lacks objectivity.
Wundts research is reliant on self report methods. he asks ppts to report on theri experiences which is subjective experience and not empirical data, such as an observation of the ppt behaviour. Therefore his findings lack objectivity and are open to researcher bias. Furthermore, his use of introspection assumes ppts are able to explain their experiences - but this may not be possible/ Invalid research therefore means their work is not truly scientific. therefore his contribution to psychology is limited.
behaviourist approach
AO1
All behaviour is learned from experience and tehrefore can be changed.
Classical conditioning is learning through association. Before learning, UCS(unconditioned stimulus) elicits UCR(unconditioned response)
The neutral stimulus (NS) elicits no response.
During learning :
UCS and NS are repeatedly paired together and cause UCR
this forms an association between UCS and NS.
After learning:
CS(NS-> CS, conditioned stimulus) elicits a conditioned response, CR. We no longer trigger by UCS only but also CS as well.
Extinction is when there is no pairing of CS and UCS repeatedly, leading to CS becoming NS again.
spontanious recovery- immediate return of a CR when the CS is presented alongside a UCS after period of extinction
GENERALISATION- when a CR is demonstarted in reponse to stimuli that are similr to the CS
Operant conditioning is when we learn through the consequences, sucha s reward and punishment systems. This is used in schools and prisons.
In positive reinforcement a pleasent consequence in response to preforming a desired behaviour leads to increased frequency of the given behaviour.
negative reinforcement is the removal of an unpleasent consequence in response to preforming a desired behaviour leading to increased frequency of the desired behaviour.
Punishment is when there is an unpleasent consequence in response to preforming an undesired behaviourleading to lower frequency of given behaviour.
behaviourist approach
pavlovs study of dogs
before learning :
Pavlov would ring a bell= eleciting no reaction
when he braught the dogs food= increased salivation
during:
rings bell and bring food = increased salivation - combination is repeated
after:
rings bell= salivation increased
through generalisation- Conditioned stimulus lead sto application to similar experience- dogs now salivate to other types of bells
extinction - lead sto gods no longer salivating due to repeated lack of pairing,
behaviourist approach
skinners box
food pellets would act as positive reinforcement
electric shocks would act as punishment or negative reinforcement.
When the mice would pull the leaver= there would be a light= which would release a pellet= pos reinforcement.
alternatively,
pulling the leaver would stop the schocking= negative reinforcement.
AO3, behaviourist approach
uses scientific methodology
research is more objective , increasing the validity of the findings.
operant conditions are well controlled in a lab leading to increased replicability= increased reliability. Skinners box and pavlovs dog both done in labs and Pavlov measured salivia making his research not based on observation- removing researcher bias.
AO3, behaviourist approach
real life application to behav approach
token economy systems are widely used in institutions to encourage desired behaviour, i.e eating from people with anorexia nervosa. They eat= token= exchange for reward of choice. This tehrefore improes lives = leading to real life practical application.
AO3 behaviourist approach
extrapolates from animal research
principles of classical conditioning are based on pavlovs reserach on dogs and operant conditionings based on skinners research on rats. Humans are more cognitively complex and thus this leads to questions on the external validity of evidence. leading to questions validity or research and findings.
SLT
AO1
Behaviour is learned from the enviornment- interactions with the enviornment, behaviour and cognitive processes.
Modelling is when people are likely to imitate behaviour of those seen as role models. Role models demonstrate behaviours which are observed and imitated. Identification is when we associate with someone and want to be like them. This is especially present in children as they are likely to imitate behaviour of someone they identify with who posses sumilar characteristics to us, seenas attractive/ higher status also increases likely hood of imitation. Vicarious reinforcement is when RMs reinforced / rewarded for their behaviour= leading t increased imitation. IF they are punished for the behaviour we are less likely to imitate the behaviour.
Cognitive mediational processs is the process between model display and the imitation of the observer.
1. attention- we see a new behaviour and pay attention to it.
2. retention- forming mental representation of observed behaviour.
3. reproduction- assess if we have the capacity to reproduce the observed behaviour ourselves.
4. motivation- have the capacity and possiblity of of consequences for reproducing behaviour. Based on vicarious reinforcement, we may imitate the behaviour.
SLT - study
Banduras Bobo doll study
aims to see if RM can influence the behaviour when no longer present.
method 72 children , of 3-6 years old, 36 male 36 female. each child was given an aggressive RM, non aggressive RM or a control (no RM). Some models were the same sex as the children.
agressive condition: observe RM verbally abusive to bobo doll and hit with hammer.
non- aggressive= playing quitely and ignoring the bobo doll.
The children were place in a room for 20 mins with the bobo dols and aggressive and none agressive toys. They were observed through 5 second intervals.
findings aggressive RM children were more likely to show agression to the doll then non- aggressie group. Boys physicial agression was more common, in girls verbal aggression was more coomon. There was increased imitation for same sex RMs
Conclusions kids can learn social behaviour through RMs observations
they will imitate even after a delay from learning
imitation is effected by identification of child with RM.
evals:
+ high control, lab experiment extrenious variables i.e gender, time observed etc controlled. researcher can establish strong cause and effect rs bwteen displayed behaviour of model and child. replicable- lab, standardised+ instructions means it can be repeated to study consistency in results increasing reliability.
- artificial, rm and child were strangers, bobo doll unfamiliar, imitations were immediate= lacks mudane realism. demand characteristics the child may have thought they were expected to strike the bobodoll.
- ethics, possible harm to children exposed to aggressive model. generalisablity, all from stanford uni- 3-6 yos.
SLT- AO3
acknowledges mental processes
more hollistic then traditional behaviourism. It has a combination of learning from the enviornment and cognitive processes. Which implies free will making it less deterministic. Therefore making it a strength becasue it provides a broader understanding of human behaviour and gives us power to change unhealthy behaviour.
SLT- AO3
research support from bandura
children are more agresive if their rolemodel demonstrates behaviour compared to if their rolemodel doesnt. They are more likely to imitate same sex RMs, acting as evidence of identification. This shows how behaviour is learnt through attention. reproduced because of modelling. Furthermore, it also supports identification because of them having shared characteristic. Therefore increasing the validity of SLT as an explanation of aquired behaviour.
SLT - AO3
limited explanatory scope
people with schizophrenia cannot model observed behaviour- hallucinations and delusions. Therefore, SLT is not the way we aquire behaviour and other factors play a role such as genetics. Therefore SLT provides a limited explanation for non- observed behaviour therefore decreasing its ability to be generalised for all behaviours.
Cognitive approach AO1
ao1
Theoretical Model
The human mind is like a computer.
Cognitive psychologists use frameworks to explain mental processes in steps/components.
Information Processing Approach:
We receive input from the environment.
It passes through mediational processes.
Leads to output (behavioural response).
Inference
Cognitive psychologists infer mental processes from observable behaviour.
Based on evidence and reasoning.
Example:
When given a list of words, people with depression focus on negative words.
This suggests they have a negative cognitive bias.
Schemas
Cognitive frameworks that organise and interpret information.
Develop through experience and help process information quickly.
Fill in gaps based on expectations but can ignore contradictory information.
Example:
A child rejected by parents may develop a negative self-schema.
This can contribute to depression in adulthood.
cognitive approach
computer models
Computer programmes experimented with to get a better understanding of the functioning of the human mind. Models that learn and express intelligent behaviour (AI) use their output for better understanding. Findings can be applied to humans due to assumption that human mind works like a computer.
Algorithm put into place and input created to mimic environmental stimulus»processed by algorithms»output
Cognitive approach
cognitive neuroscience
The scientific study of the biological basis for mental processing. Specifically neuronal behaviour is done by measuring parts of the brain during cognitive processing using techniques such as FMRI and PET scans so scientists can systematically observe.
CA AO3
supporting evidence
Beck found that depression is caused by a faulty schema
Ellis found consistent negative and irrational beliefs made on vulnerable to depression like behaviour
therefore, thoyghts and mental processes affect behaviour therefore supporting assumption of CA and thus increasing validity.
AO3 CA
real life application
Faulty cognitions and cognitive explanations for depression thus CBT/other treatments.
CBT can help as Davids et al found it to be one of the most effective treatments fo deppression.
Thus CBT effective = assumption of CA is valid and supported by CBTs success
AO3 CA
incomplete
oversimplifies complex human behaviour into simple ideas= schemas. Ignores other factors roles in human bahviour, such as genes, as Mcguffin et als research sugests genes have an effect on behaviour. therefore decreasing the explanatory scope of the cognitive approach and decreasing the CAs validity.
biological approach
ao1
everything psychological has a biological basis.
the role of the genes is to control the development of organisms and alleles they have a code for the production of CNS structures and behaviours are based on the CNA thus genes have an indirect impact on behaviour.
Problems in genes lead to problems in mae up and then problems in behaviour. Genes can increase the chance of OCD such as the 5HTT gene which controls the movement of serotonin, if there is less seotonin in the synapsis it is OCD.
The brain plays an influence as it controls the behaviour and thoughts emotions and sesations. For example, the cerebral cortex controls high order functions, thoughts. damage in brain can mean damage in thinking ability and thus behaviour.
The neurotransmitters pass electrical impulses at the end of neurons which releases NT across the gap(synapse) to the next neurone. Different transmitters exist. i.e Dopamine- which increases drive is an excitatory neurone which increases likelyhood of firing. Serotonin is a mood stabilzer and an inhibitary neurone. thus it decreases likelyhood of firing.
The influence of evolution is First a random mutation which gives person an adaptive characteristic which makes them bettwer suited to survive natural selection and thus they can pass on their traits which helped their survival and their offspring can carry it on in the next generation . evolving leads to affect in behaviour today.
bioological approach AO3
supporting evidence for the genetic explanation
Mcguffin et al conducted twin studies. He found a 46% concordance rate for monozygotic twins compared to a 20% concordance rate for diozygotic twins. Thus increased genetic similarities can increase shared traits of diseases sych as depression. Thus it is partly genetic. Further with a more then double concordance rate in monoxygotic twins then DZ twins its supports the role oge= genes and increases the validity of the Biological Approach.
bioological approach AO3
biological explanation is reductionist
It reduces complex human behaviour to genes and neurotranmitters it ignores other factors such as the stress duo thesis model which states that genes create a vulneribility and that the enviornment must act as a trigger, it is required for the behaviour to be expressed. Thus BA doesnt account for different factors- enviornment. making it an incomplete explantion and decreasing its validity.
bioological approach AO3
Nature and nurture cannot be easily seperated
twin studies have questionable validiry as it assumes the MZ concordance rate goes up due to biology and fails to consider the envionrmental factors such as treatment. As we are uncertain we cannot distinguish the roles of nature and nurture and thus cannot be sure of biological approaches validity either
Biological treatment of OCD
As one of the traits of OCD is a low level of serotonin contributing to the low mood of people with OCD, one treatment is taking SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) which block the reuptake of Serotonin by the Presynaptic neurone, more in synapse and allow for more influence of activity on f Post SN the serotonin to bind to the receptor sites for a prolonged activation of serotonin receptor sites (allowing them to send inhibitory signal easier) this then helps stabilize the mood and aleviate the anxiety. To see a reduction of symptoms, it requires 3-4 months of daily use
SRIs( serotonin reuptake inhibitors) are not selective like SSRIs and work for patients where SSRIs were ineffective as they are a stronger version. They block the reabsorbing of serotonin and noradrenaline into pre synaptic neurone. This means more NTs left in synapse allowing for prolonged activatuon of seratonin receptor sites, making transmission to next neurone easier. Tricyclics target more then one NT.
the emergence of psychology as a science
wundts contribitions
- used controlled conditions. e.g noise, by eliminating other sounds he ensured the ppt focus soley on the ticking metronome. other distractions dont affect ppt therefore all sensations images and emotions are from the ticking metronome.
- standardisation: same conditions, introspection is done in a similar way, all listened to same ticking metronome= all had similar experiences of investigation.
- replicability: standardisation allows for repeating, can check for consistency in findings= reliable.
the emergence of psychology as a science:
psychodynamic approach
freuds work in the early 20th century ,
- focuses on unconcious mind, basis for psychodynamic approach, adopted form of empiricism - knowledge from sensory experience- needs visible evidence rather than self report.
- used clinical evidence rom his work with patients.
the emergence of psychology as a science
the behaviourist approach
1910, watson and skinner
- investigated observable and measureable behaviours through lab experiments high levels of control over extrenious variables, testing IVs effect on DV can often be effected by EVs effect on DV
the emergence of psychology as a science:
humanistic approach
not very scientific by abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. 1950s.
- the spproach was purposefully less scientific in its study of human behavious
- however it did use empiricism(knowledge from senses)
the emergence of psychology as a science
the cognitive approach
1960s.
- the advent of the computers in teh 1960s- cognitive psychology focuses on internal thought process.
- operationalisation- clearly defining varibales so they can be measured numberically and specificcaly.
- applied scientific method (operationalisation to internal processes under controlled conditions).
teh emrgence of psychology as a science
biological approach
1980s.
- scientific focuses on measuring physiological processes, within the brain and the body such as neurotransmitters and neural structures. Brain/ body processes(chemical messengers passed through neurones, shapes/ size of the area of the brain)
- use of drugs to investigate the cause and effect relationships between biochemicals and thoughts/ behaviours.
