psychopathology

Question 1

define cultural relativism

Answer 1

the view that behaviour cannot be judged properly unless it is viewed in the context of the culture in which it originates

Question 2

define deviation from social norms

Answer 2

abnormal behaviour is seen as a deviation from unstated rules about how one ‘ought’ to behave. anything that violates these rules is considered abnormal

Question 3

DSM (diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorder)

Answer 3

a list of mental disorders that is used to diagnose mental disorders. for each disorder a list of clinical characteristics is given, i.e. the symptoms that should be looked for

Question 4

define statistical infrequency

Answer 4

abnormality is defined as those behaviours that are extremely rare, i.e. any behaviour that is found in very few people is regarded as abnormal

Question 5

define deviation from ideal mental health

Answer 5

abnormality is defined in terms of mental health, behaviours that are associated with competence and happiness. ideal mental health would include a positive attitude towards the self, resistance to stress and an accurate perception of reality

Question 6

define failure to function adequately

Answer 6

people are judged on their ability to go about daily life if they can’t do this and are also experiencing distress (or others are distressed by their behaviour) then it is considered a sign of abnormality

Question 7

define depression

Answer 7

a mood disorder where an individual feels sad and/or lacks interest in their usual activities. further characteristics include irrational negative thoughts, raised or lowered activity levels and difficulties with concentration, sleep and eating

Question 8

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

Answer 8

an anxiety disorder where anxiety arises from both obsessions (persistent thoughts) and compulsions (behaviours that are repeated over and over again) compulsions are a response to obsessions and the person believes the compulsions will reduce anxiety

Question 9

phobias

Answer 9

a group of mental disorders characterised by high levels of anxiety in response to a particular stimulus or group stimuli. the anxiety interferes with normal living

Question 10

classical conditioning

Answer 10

learning through association. a neutral stimulus is consistently paired with an unconditioned stimulus so that it eventually takes on the properties of this stimulus and is able to produce a conditioned response

Question 11

operant conditioning

Answer 11

learning through reinforcement or punishment. if a behaviour is followed by a desirable consequence then that behaviour is more likely to occur again in the future

Question 12

two-process model

Answer 12

a theory that explains the two processes that lead to the development of phobias- they begin through classical conditioning and are maintained through operant conditioning

Question 13

flooding

Answer 13

a form of behavioural therapy used to treat phobias and other anxiety disorders. a client is exposed to (or imagines) an extreme form of the threatening situation under relaxed conditions until the anxiety reaction is extinguished

Question 14

systematic desensitisation

Answer 14

a form of behavioural therapy used to treat phobias an other anxiety disorders. a client is gradually exposed to (or imagines) the threatening situation under relaxed conditions until the anxiety reaction is extinguished

Question 15

cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT)

Answer 15

a combination of cognitive therapy (a way of changing maladaptive thoughts and beliefs) and behavioural therapy (a way of changing behaviour in response to these thoughts and beliefs)

Question 16

irrational thoughts

Answer 16

rational thinking is flexible and realistic, where beliefs are based on fact and logic. irrational thinking is rigid and unrealistic and lacks internal consistency

Question 17

concordance rate

Answer 17

a measure of genetic similarity. in a sample of, for example 100 twin pairs, one twin of each pair has a phbic disorder. the number of times their other twin also shows the illness determines the concordance rate, so if 40 have phobic disorders, then the concordance rate is 40%

Question 18

dopamine

Answer 18

one of the key neurotransmitters in the brain, with effects on motivation and drive

Question 19

gene

Answer 19

a part of the chromosome of an organism that carries information in the form of DNA

Question 20

neurotransmitters

Answer 20

chemical substances that play an important part in the workings of the nervous system by transmitting nerve impulses across a synapse

Question 21

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid

Answer 21

a neurotransmitter that regulates excitement in the nervous system, thus acting as a natural form of anxiety

Question 22

noradrenaline

Answer 22

a neurotransmitter found mainly in areas of the brain that are involved in covering autonomic nervous system activity, e.g. blood pressure or heart rate

Question 23

serotonin

Answer 23

a neurotransmitter implicated in many different behaviours and physiological processes, including aggression, eating behaviour, sleep and depression

Question 24

definition of abnormality
statistical infrequency

Answer 24

statistics describe typical values
a frequency graph of behaviours tends to show a normal distribution
the extreme ends define what is not the norm, i.e. abnormal

Question 25

definition of abnormality
statistical infrequency
evaluation

Answer 25

some behaviour is desirable- can’t distinguish desirable from undesirable abnormal behaviour
cut-off point is subjective- important for deciding who gets treatment
sometimes appropriate- e.g. for intellectual disability defined as less than two standard deviations below mean IQ
cultural relativism- statistical frequency is relative to the reference population

Question 26

definition of abnormality
deviation from social norms

Answer 26

norms defined by a group of people (‘society’)
standards of what is acceptable
may be implicit or defined by law

Question 27

definition of abnormality
deviation from social norms
evaluation

Answer 27

susceptible to abuse- varies with changing attitudes/morals, can be used to incarcerate those who are nonconformists
related to context and degree- e.g. shouting is normal in some places and in moderation
strengths- distinguishes desirable from undesirable behaviour, and considers effect on others
cultural relativism- social norms of dominant culture used as basis for DSM, imposed on other culture groups

Question 28

definition of abnormality
failure to function adequately

Answer 28

being unable to manage everyday life, e.g. eating regularly
lack of functioning is abnormal if it causes distress to self and/or others
WHODAS used to provide a quantitative measure of functioning

Question 29

definition of abnormality
failure to function adequately
evaluation

Answer 29

who judges- distress may be judged subjectively
behaviour may be functional- e.g. depression may be rewarding for the individual
subjective experience recognised- can be measured objectively
cultural relativism- standards of everyday life vary between cultures, non-traditional lifestyles may be judged as inadequate

Question 30

definitions of abnormality
deviation from ideal mental health

Answer 30

jahoda identified characteristics commonly used when describing competent people
for example: high self-esteem, self-actualisation, autonomy, accurate perception of reality, mastery of the environment

Question 31

definitions of abnormality
deviation from ideal mental health
evaluation

Answer 31

unrealistic criteria- may not be useable because too ideal
equates mental and physical health- whereas mental disorders tend not to have physical causes
positive approach- a general part of the humanistic approach
culture-bound criteria, e.g. self-actualisation not relevant to collectivist cultures

Question 32

mental disorder
phobias

Answer 32

emotional: excessive fear, anxiety and/or panic cued by a specific object or situation
behavioural: avoidance, faint or freeze. interferes with everyday life
cognitive: not helped by rational argument, unreasonableness of the behaviour recognised

Question 33

mental disorder
depression

Answer 33

emotional: negative emotions- sadness, loss of interest and sometimes anger
behavioural: reduced or increased activity related to energy levels, sleep and/or eating
cognitive: irrational, negative thoughts and self-beliefs that are self-fulfilling

Question 34

mental disorders
OCD

Answer 34

emotional: anxiety and distress, and awareness that this is excessive, leading to shame
cognitive: recurrent, intrusive, uncontrollable thoughts (obsessions), more than everyday worries
behavioural: compulsive behaviours to reduce obsessive thoughts, not connected in a realistic way

Question 35

the behavioural approach
explaining phobias

Answer 35

classical conitioning- phobias acquired through association between NS and UCR; NS becomes CS, producing fear
little Albert (Watson and Rayner) - developed fear of white rat which generalised to other white fury objects
operant conditioning- phobia maintained through negative reinforcement (avoidance of fear)
social learning- phobic behaviour of other modelled

Question 36

the behavioural approach
explaining phobias
evaluation

Answer 36

classical conditioning- people often report a specific incident but not always, may only apply to some types of phobias (sue et al)
incomplete explanation- not everyone bitten by a dog develops a phobia (di Nardo et al) may depends on having a genetic vulnerability for phobias
social learning- fear response acquired through observing reaction to a buzzer (bandura and Rosenthal)
biological preparedness- phobias more likely with ancient fears, conditioning alone can’t explain all phobias (seligman)
two- process model ignores cognitive factors- irrational thinking may explain social phobias, for example, which are more successfully treated with cognitive methods (Engels et al)

Question 37

the cognitive approach
explaining depression

Answer 37

Ellis ABC model (1962)
activating event leads to rational or irrational belief, which then leads to consequences
mustabatory thinking (e.g. I must be liked)- causes disappointment and depression
BECK’S NEGATIVE TRIAD (1967)
negative schema- develops in childhood (e.g. parental rejection), leads to cognitive biases
negative triad- irrational and negative view of self, the world and the future

Question 38

the cognitive approach
explaining depression
evaluation

Answer 38

support for role of irrational thinking- depressed people make more errors in logic (Hammen and Krantz) however, irrational thinking may not cause depression
blames the client and ignores situational factors- recovery may depends on recognising environmental factors
practical applications to CBT- supports the role of irrational thoughts in depression
irrational beliefs may be realistic- depressed people may be realists, sadder but wiser (Alloy and Abrahamson)
alternative explanation- genes may cause low levels of serotonin, predisposing people to develop depression

Question 39

the cognitive approach
treating depression

Answer 39

COGNITIVE-BEHAVIOURAL THERAPY (CBT)
Ellis ABCDEF model
D for disputing irrational beliefs, e.g. logical, optical, pragmatic
E and F for effects of disputing and feeling that are produced
homework- trying out new behaviours to test irrational beliefs
behavioural activation- encouraging re-engagement with pleasurable activities
unconditional positive regard- reduces sense of worthlessness

Question 40

the cognitive approach
treating depression
evaluation

Answer 40

researchsupport- generally successful Ellis estimated 90% success over 27 sessions, may depend on therapist competence (Kuyken and Tsivrikos)
individual differences- CBT not suitable for those with rigid irrational beliefs, those whose stressors cannot be changed and those who don’t want direct advice
behavioural activation- depressed clients in exercise group had lower relapse after 6 months (Babyak et al)
alternative treatments- drug therapy is much easier in time and effort, and can be used with CBT
Dodo bird effect- all treatment equally effective because they share features, e.g. talking to a sympathetic person (Rosenzweig)

Question 41

treating phobias
systematic desensitisation

Answer 41

counterconditioning- phobic stimulus associated with new response of relaxation
reciprocal inhibition- the relaxation inhibits the anxiety (Wolpe)
relaxation- deep breathing focus on peaceful scene, progressive muscle relaxation
desensitisation hierarchy- from least to most fearful, relaxation practised at every step

Question 42

treating phobias
systematic desensitisation
evaluation

Answer 42

effectivenes- 75% success (McGrath et al) in vivo techniques may work better or a combination (Comer)
not for all phobias- work better for ancient fears (Ohman et al)

Question 43

treating phobias
flooding

Answer 43

one long session with the most fearful stimulus
continues until anxiety subsides and a new stimulus- response link is learned
can be in vivo or virtual reality

Question 44

treating phobias
flooding
evaluation

Answer 44

effectiveness- research suggests it may be more effective than SD and quicker (Choy et al)
individual differences- traumatic and, if patient quit, then has failed as a treatment

Question 45

Treating phobias
Evaluation of behavioural therapies

Answer 45

Strengths- behavioural therapies are fast and require less effort than CBT, can be self-administered
Relaxation may not be necessary- creating a new expectation of coping may matter more (Klein et al)
Symptom substitution- a phobia may be symptom of an underlying problem (e.g. little Hans)

Question 46

the biological approach
genetic explanation to OCD

Answer 46

COMPT gene- one allele more common in OCD creates high levels of serotonin (Ozaki et al)
diathesis-stress - same genes linked to other disorders or no disorder at all, therefore genes create a vulnerability

Question 47

the biological approach
neural explanations to OCD

Answer 47

dopamine levels High in OCD- linked to compulsive behaviours in animals studies (Szechtman et al)
serotonin levels low in OCD- antidepressants that increase serotonin most effective (Jenicke)
worry circuit- damaged caudate nucleus doesn’t suppress worry signals from OFC to thalamus
serotonin and dopamine linked to activity in these parts of the frontal lobe (e.g. Sukel)

Question 48

biological approach
explaining OCD
evaluation

Answer 48

family and twin studies- 5 times greater risk of OCD if relative has OCD (Nestadt et al) twice as likely to have OCD if MZ twins (Billett et al) but concordance rates never 100%
Tourettes, anorexia, autism and depression - linked genes not unique to OCD
research support for genes and OFC - OCD patients and family members (genetic link) more likely to have reduced grey matter in OFC (Menzies et al)