psychopathology

Question 1

what are the characteristics of phobias

Answer 1

all phobias are characterised by the excessive irrational fear and anxiety, which is triggered by an object or situation.

Question 2

what are the three subtypes of phobias

Answer 2

specific phobias- eg objects, injuries
social anxiety- being anxious in social situations
agoraphobia- fear of leaving home or safe place

Question 3

what are the different subtypes of phobias

Answer 3

emotion
cognitive
behavioural

Question 4

what is the emotional side of phobias

Answer 4

-persistent, excessive fear of exposure to phobic situation
-fear of exposure to phobic situation

Question 5

what is the cognitive side of phobias

Answer 5

-recognition of exaggerated anxiety
-irrational beliefs
-selective attention to phobic objects so it is difficult to look away from it
-cognitive distortions where the individual perception of the stimulus is distorted

Question 6

what is the behavioral side of phobias

Answer 6

-panic
-avoidance
-endurance

Question 7

what is the two process model

Answer 7

Mowrer
classical conditioning and operant conditioning

Question 8

what is classical conditioning

Answer 8

learning through association and the learned response becomes automatic and involuntary
based upon building an association between a neutral stimulus and an existing unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response.

Question 9

what is operant conditioning

Answer 9

phobias are long lasting. this is the result of operant conditioning.
behaviour is reinforced or punished. there are two types of reinforcement.
positive reinforcement- adding reward after a behaviour
negative reinforcement- removing stimuli/situation which is unpleasant.

Question 10

evaluation of the two process model

Answer 10

-the explanation is incomplete as it doesn’t explain why some people have phobias to objects they have no previous experience with
+theory can be applied to real life and used to develop treatments like flooding and systematic desensitization.
-behaviorist explanation is weak as not everyone that experiences traumatic events goes on to develop a phobia. not all people who have phobias have been through a traumatic event.
-most of the research to support the behaviorist approach relies on animal research. this ack generalizability as humans are more complex than animals.
+Watson and Rayner conducted a lab experiment on little albert. the aim was to see if humans could have conditioned phobias. Albert was not scared of rats. they presented albert with a range of other things such as a newspaper and a Santa claus mask. they then paired the rat with the sound of a metal bar. albert became frightened with the sound of the metal bar with the rat. after that albert became scared of the rat by itself.

Question 11

what is systematic desensitization

Answer 11

classical conditioning is used to gradually reduce the phobic anxiety. if the sufferer can learn to relax in the presence of the phobic stimulus then they will be cured. it is based on the idea that it is impossible to be afraid and relaxed at the same time
1. the anxiety hierarchy- patient and therapist creates a list of situations related to the phobic stimulus that promotes anxiety. they arrange from most to least frightening
2. relaxation- therapist teaches the patient to relax as deeply as possible. breathing exercises, mental imagery techniques. can be achieved through drugs like valium
3. exposure- patient is exposed to the stimulus gradually while in a relaxed state.

Question 12

evaluation of systematic desensitization

Answer 12

+gilroy et al followed 42 patients who had been treated for arachnophobia. their spider phobia was assessed on several measures including a spider questionaire and by assessing their response to spiders. they were compared to a control group that had relaxation but no exposure. they found that at 3 and 33 months the SD group were less fearful than the control group. showed that SD was effective in reducing phobias
+the treatment may be considered ethical compared to flooding as the individual is not immediately exposed to the phobic object and they only move on when they are ready.
- treatment is only suitable for patients who are able to learn and use relaxation strategies. however the effectiveness of the therapy relies on the patients ability to do this and if they cant the therapy will be ineffective.
-treatment only addresses the symptoms and not the cause.

Question 13

what is flooding

Answer 13

involves exposing patients to their phobic stimulus where patients are immediately exposed to very frightening situations. longer than SD with one session lasting 2-3 hours and sometimes only one long session is needed to cure a phobia. stops the phobic responses quickly because without the option of avoidance the patient learns that the phobic stimulus is harmless. this is called extinction.
there are two types:
-in vitro- the clients imagines the exposure to a phobic stimulus
-in vivo- the client is actually exposed tot he stimulus.

Question 14

evaluation of flooding

Answer 14

+ this is effective as other therapies. Ougrin compared flooding to other therapies and found that flooding is highly effective and quicker than the alternatives. This is a strength as it means patients are free of symptoms quickly and makes treatment cheaper.
-less effective for more complex phobias. this may be due to the fact these phobias have a cognitive aspect. eg social anxiety.
- treatment creates an extremely traumatic experience. it isn’t unethical as they would have given informed consent but the patient may be unwilling to finish the treatment- low attrition rates.
- common problem is symptom substitution. this is where the phobia that disappears is replaced by another fear. this could be due to the phibua being caused by a childhood trauma that isn’t resolved.

Question 15

what are the characteristics of depression

Answer 15

disorder characterised by a change in mood.
average age of onset is late 20’s
two main types- unipolar and bipolar.
bipolar less common

Question 16

emotional charcterisations of unipolar depression

Answer 16

-loss of enthausiasm
-constant depressed mood
-worthlessness

Question 17

cognitive characterisations of unipolar depression

Answer 17

-delusions
-reduced concentration
-thoughts of death
poor memory

Question 18

behavioural characterisations of unipolar depression

Answer 18

-loss of energy
-social impairment
-weight changes
-poor personal hygiene
-sleep pattern disturbance

Question 19

emotional characteristics of bipolar depression

Answer 19

-elevated mood
-irritability
-lack of guilt

Question 20

cognitive characteristics of bipolar depression

Answer 20

delusions of grandeur
-irrational thought process and decision making

Question 21

behavioural characteristics of bipolar depression

Answer 21

-high energy levels
-reckless behaviour
talkative, endless speech without regard for what others are saying

Question 22

what are the cognitive explanations for depression

Answer 22

becks cognitive theory
Ellis’ ABC model

Question 23

what is becks cognitive theory

Answer 23

He suggested a cognitive approach to why people are more vulnerable to depression than others. this si because a persons cognition creates this vulnerability. he suggested 3 parts to this cognitive vulnerability:
1. faulty information processing- when depressed we attend the negative aspects of a situation and ignore the positives.
2. negative self schemas- a schema is a ‘package’ of information developed through stereotypes and personal experience. a self schema is a package of information we have about ourselves. this means we if we have a negative self schema we interpret everything about ourselves in a negative way.
3. the negative triad- people develop a dysfunctional view about themselves because of 3 types of negative thinking that occurs:
a. negative view of the world
b.negative view of the future
c. negative view of the self

Question 24

evaluate becks cognitive theory

Answer 24

+research supports the idea. Grazoli and Terry assessed 65 pregnant women for cognitive vulnerability and depression before
and after birth. they found that those women found to have a high cognitive vulnerability were more likely to suffer from post natal depression.
+ additional support from Boury et al who monitored students negative thoughts and found that ‘depressives’ misinterpret facts and experiences in a negative fashion and feel hopeless about the future which supports that becks theory linked mental disorders to irrational thoughts.
+ good practical application as it has hekp do develop cbt
-much of the research uses correlational design. this cannot establish a cause and effect between variables as there may be another variable responsible for the relationship.

Question 25

what is ellis’ ABC model

Answer 25

proposed that good health is a result of rational thinking. this allows people to be happy and free of pain. so conditions such as anxiety and depression result fro irrational thought
A-ctivating event
B-eliefs
C-onsequenses

Question 26

evaluation of the ABC model

Answer 26

• useful in explaining dperession as it follows an activating event which is called reactive depression. HOWEVER, only a partial explanation as it only applies to some types of depression and doesn’t explain depression when there is no obvious cause
  + good practical application as it has helped to develop Rational Emotive Behavioural Therapy (REBT)
• limited success in explaining and treating the manic component of bipolar disorder- not complete

Question 27

what are the cognitive therapies for depression

Answer 27

cognitive behavioural therapy
Rational Emotional Behavioural therapy

Question 28

what is cognitive behavioural therapy

Answer 28

identify automatic thoughts about the world, self and future. first the client will be assessed to discover the severity of their condition. the therapist will discover a base line prior to treatment to help monitor improvement. the irrational thoughts must be challenged throuout treatment to help test the reality of their negative beliefs
‘patient is the scientist’
therapy focus’s on the present

Question 29

what is Rational emotional behavioural therapy

Answer 29

the view that irratiobnal thoughts cause behaviour disorders
central part of the therapy used the ABC model. that the beliefs someone hold about an activating event will have consequences.
irrational thoughts cause negative self statements and so REBT involves making patient irrational and negative thoughts more positive.ellis defined 11 basic ‘musturbatory’ beliefs that are emotionally damaging and might lead to psychological problems. involves reframing which means challenging negative thoughts be reinterpreting the ABC model in a more positive way.
Dispute and Effect were later added to the model. he suggests an individual must dispute a belief to challenge and replace it.
involves empirical, logical and pragmatic disputing.
1-2 sessions every couple of weeks to test negative thoughts

Question 30

evaluation of cbt and rebt

Answer 30

+research such as march et al demonstrate cbt is effective in treating depression. they compared the effect of cbt with antidepressant drugs and a combination of the 2 on 327 adolescents. after 36 weeks 81% of the cbt. 81% of the drugs and 86% of the cbt plus the antidepressants were significantly improved. therefore suggesting that cbt is just as effective as medication.
+ further supporting research comes from David et al who investigated 170 patient suffering form a major depressive disorder they found that patients treated within 14 weeks with REBT had better outcomes than those being treated with drugs 6 months after treatment.
+ very little side effects compared to medication- therapy may be easier to tolerate
- cbt relies on motivation- if patients cant motivate themself to engage then the therapy wont work. if an individual has such a deep depression and cannot motivate themselves and cant pay attention then the therapy wont work.
- focuses on the present and the future not the past. some patients are aware of the links to their childhood and may want to speak about them. not exploring the root cause
+ good real life applications it occurs over a relatively short time compared to other treatments and is more cost effective, also has long term benefits
-ignores other factors- in particular biological factors which contribute to the development of depression. if it was an imbalance in chemical causing depression then drugs would needed to be used.
- difficult to establish causality. dysfunctional thinking may not be the cause of depression.

Question 31

characteristics of OCD

Answer 31

it is an anxiety disorder where sufferers experience obsessions and compulsions. these can be very time consuming.

Question 32

emotional characteristics of obsessions

Answer 32

extreme anxiety

Question 33

cognitive charcteristics of obsessions

Answer 33

-recurrent and persistent thoughts
-recognised as self generated thoughts
-realisation of inappropriateness
-attention bias focused

Question 34

behavioural characteristics of obsessions

Answer 34

-hinders everyday functioning
-social impairemnt

Question 35

emotional charcteristics of compulsions

Answer 35

-distress

Question 36

cognitive charcteristics of compulsions

Answer 36

-uncontrollable urges
-realisation of inappropriateness

Question 37

behavioral characteristics of compulsions

Answer 37

-repetative behaviours
-hinders everyday functioning
-social impairment

Question 38

what is the genetic explanation of OCD

Answer 38

OCD has been found to run in families- but it is genetic vulnerability not specifically ocd
the diathesis stress model suggest that genes predispose you of disorders but it requires the environment to trigger it.

researchers have found candidate genes that create genetic vulnerability
5HT1-D beta is implicated in the efficiency of serotonin across synapses. it is unlikely a single gene is involves in increasing an individuals vulnerability but a combination of genes. Tayloe fornd that up to 230 could be involved.

Question 39

evaluation of the genetic explanation for ocd

Answer 39

+ supporting evidence comes from Nestadt et al who reviewed previous twin studies and found that 68% of identical twins share OCD as opposed to 31% of non identical twins
- most common way to study is twin studies. these overlook the fact that twins will also be similar in their environment
- research shows a genetic link but there isn’t a 100% concordance rate means that there must be some environmental factors involved.
-contradictory research comes from cromer et al. who found that over half of ocd patients had traumatic events in their past. more trauma= more severe. cant be entirely genetic

Question 40

what is the neural explanations of OCD

Answer 40

the genes associated with OCD are likely to affect the key neurotransmitters
one neurotransmitter implicated in OCD is serotonin. it regulates mood. neurotransmitters are responsible for relaying messages from one neuron to anotherand PET scans show the level of serotonin activities in the brain.
PET scans have shown that OCD sufferers have abnormal functioning in the orbital frontal cortex a part of the brain associated with cognitive processing and decision making. The left parahippocampal gyrus is also linked to OCD in terms of processing unpleasant emotions.

Question 41

evaluation of neural explanation of OCD

Answer 41

+ some anti-depressant work purely on the serotonin system, increasing levels of the neurotransmitters. these drugs are effective in reducing OCD symptoms
-research has also identifies other brain systems that may be involved sometimes, but no system has been found that always plays a role in OCD. cannot fully understand the neural mechanisms of OCD
- not all sufferers of OCD positively response to serotonin enhancing drugs. this contradicts the idea of abnormal levels of neurotransmitters being the sole cause of the disorder as we would expect to see all individuals improve. not a full explanation
-difficult to establish causality- evidenc to suggest that different neurotransmitters and parts of the brain do not function in patients with OCD. however this may not be the cause of ocd.

Question 42

what drugs are used to treat OCD

Answer 42

drugs aim to increase or decrease the levels of neurotransmitters on the brain or to increase or decrease activity. In the case of OCD- serotonin
the standard treatment is selective serotinin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI’s) typical dose is 20mg.
SSRI’s work on the serotonin system of the brain. serotonin is released by certain neurons in the brain. it is released by the presynaptic neuron and ravels across the synapse. the neurotransmitter chemically conveys the signal from the presynaptic neuron to the post synaptic and then it is reabsorbed by the presynaptic where it is broken down and reused.
the SSRI’s prevent the reabsorption and breakdown of serotonin which increases the levels of serotonin in the synapse and continues to stimulate the post synaptic neuron

alternates to SSRI’s are tricycles which have the same effect but more side effects or SNRI’s (selective noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors)

Question 43

evaluation of biological treatments of OCD

Answer 43

+ evidence that SSRIs are effective in reducing the symptoms of OCDand therefore improving the quality of life. Soomro et al reviewed 17 studies comparing SSRI’s to placebo’s and concluded all studies showed SSRI’s were significantly better than the placebo
+ generally cheap compared to psychological treatments and therefore is a good value for the healthcare system and lower cost for the economy. less disruptive to the patients lives.
-drugs have side effects. this may stop the patient from taking them and reduce their effectiveness
-most of the research carried out to support drugs are sponsored by drugs companies. the findings might be bias and companies might not report all the evidence.
- drugs only treat the symptoms and don’t treat the root cause if it is from their childhood.