PSYCHOPATHOLOGY Flashcards
What is statistical infrequency?
Occurs when an individual has a less common characteristic
Example: being more depressed or less intelligent than most of the population.
IQ and intellectual disability disorder as an example of statistical infrequency:
- in any human characteristic, majority of people’s scores will cluster around average, and the further above or believe the average, the fewer people who will get those scores.
- this is called NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
AVERAGE IQ is 100
- most people (68%) have an IQ in range of 85-115
- only 2% have score below 70
- individuals below 60 are very unusual/ abnormal
-these people liable to get diagnosis of a psychological disorder: INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY DISORDER.
Statistical infrequency as a definition for abnormality
EVALUATION
Real life application
- strength of statistical definition is that it has real world application in diagnosis of intellectual disability disorder.
- therefore there’s a place for statistical infrequency in thinking about what are normal and abnormal behaviours + characteristics.
- all assessments of patients with mental disorders include some kind of measurement of how severe their symptoms are compared to statistica norms
- so statistical infrequency useful part of clinical assessment.
Statistical infrequency as a definition for abnormality
EVALUATION
Unusual characteristics can be positive!
- IQ scores over 130 are just as unusual as those below 70, but wouldn’t think super intelligence as an undesirable characteristic that needs treatment.
- just because few people display certain behaviours DOES the behaviour statistically abnormal
- BUT doesn’t mean it requires treatment to return to normal
- serious limitation to concept of statistical infrequency and means that it would never be used alone to make a diagnosis.
Statistical infrequency as a definition for abnormality
EVALUATION
Not everyone unusual benefits from a label
- where someone is living a happy fulfilled life, there’s no benefit to them being labelled as abnormal regardless of how unusual they are.
-so someone with a very low IQ but who is not distressed an quite capable of working would not need a diagnosis of intellectual disability
- if that person was labelled as abnormal this might have negative effect on way others view them and way they view themselves.
What is deviation from social norms?
Concerns behaviour that is different demo the accepted standards of behaviour in a community or society
Antisocial personality disorder as an example of deviation from social norms
- Peres with antisocial personality disorder (psychopathy) is impulsive, aggressive and irresponsible.
- according to DSM-5 , one important symptom is an ‘absence of prosocial internal standards associated with failure to conform to lawful or culturally normative ethical behaviour’.
- we make social judgement that a psychopath is abnormal as they don’t conform to out moral standards.
Deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality
EVALUATION
Not a sole explanation
- strength of deviation from social norms is that it has real life application in the diagnosis of antisocial personality disorder.
- so there’s a place for deviation from social noms in thinking about what is normal + abnormal.
- however, even in this case there are other factors to consider
E.g distress to other people resulting from antisocial personality disorder . - so deviation from social never the sole reason for defining abnormality
Deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality
EVALUATION
Cultural relativism
- another problem with using deviation from social norms to define behaviour as abnormal is that social norms are very different from one generation to another and from one community to another.
- means that a person from 1 cultural group may label someone from another cultural group as behaving abnormally according to their standards than the standards of the person behaving that way.
- e.g hearing voices is socially acceptable in some cultures but would be seen as a sign of mental abnormality in UK
- This creates problems for people from 1 culture living within another culture group.
Deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality
EVALUATION
Can lead to human rights abuses
- too much reliance on deviation from social norms to understand abnormality can lead to systematic abuse of human rights.
- looking at the historical examples of deviation from social norms it’s pretty clear that diagnoses were really there to maintain control over minority ethnic groups and women
- this classifications appear ridiculous nowadays- but only because social norms have changed
Define failure to function adequately
Occurs when someone is unable to cope with ordinary demands of day-to-day living.
What did Rosehan + Seligman 1989 propose as signs that someone is not coping?
- when person no longer conforms to standards interpersonal rules e.g maintaining eye contact and respecting personal space.
- when person experiences severe personal distress
- when persons behaviour becomes irrational or dangerous to themselves or others.
Intellectual disability disorder as an example of failure to function adequately
One criteria is very low IQ
- however person must also be failing to function adequately before a diagnosis would be given.
Define deviation from ideal mental health
Occurs when someone does not meet a set of criteria dor good mental health
What did Jahoda 1958- suggest that we are in good mental health if we meet the criteria…..
- no symptoms of distress
- rational and can perceive ourselves accurately
- self- actualise
- cope with stress
- good self esteem and lack guilt
- independent of other people
- can successfully work, love and enjoy our leisure.
Failure to function adequately as a detention of abnormality
EVALUATION
Patients perspective
- strength of failure to function adequately is that it does attempt to include the subjective experience of the individual.
- it may not be entirely satisfactory approach as it is difficult to assess distress but at least definition acknowledges the experience of the patient is important.
- failure to function adequate definition captures the experience of many of the people who need help.
- suggests that failure to function adequate is a useful criterion for assessing abnormality.
Failure to function adequately as a detention of abnormality
EVALUATION
Is it simply a deviation from social norms?
- in practice it can be hard to say when someone is really failing to function and when they are just deviating from social norms.
- we may think not having job or permeant address is a sign of failure to function adequately.
- but some people choose alternative lifestyles
- those who practice extreme sports could be accused of behaving in maladaptive way
- whilst those with religious or super natural beliefs could be seen as irrational.
- if treat these behaviours as ‘failures’ of adequate functioning, we risk limiting personal freedom + discriminating against minority groups
Failure to function adequately as a detention of abnormality
EVALUATION
Subjective judgements
- when deciding whether someone is failing to function adequately, someone has to judge whether patient is distressed or distressing.
- some patients may say they are distressed but may be judged as not suffering.
- there are methods for making such judgments as objected as possible, including checklists such as Global assessment of functioning scale.
- however principle remains that someone (e.g psychiatrists) has the right to make this judgment.
Deviation from ideal mental halter as a definition of abnormality
EVALUATION
It is a comprehensive definition
- strength of deviation from ideal mental health is that it is very comprehensive.
- it covers a broad range of criteria for mental health.
- it probably covers most of the reasons someone would seek help from mental health services or be referred for help.
- the sheer range of factors discussed in relation to Jahoda ideal mental health make it a good tool for thinking about mental health.
Deviation from ideal mental halter as a definition of abnormality
EVALUATION
Cultural relativism
- some of the ideas in Jahoda’s classification of ideal mental health are specific to Western European + North American cultures (culture bound)
- EXAMPLE:
- emphasis on personal achievement int he concept of self- actualisation would be considered self-indulgent in much of the world as the emphasis is so much on individual rather than the family or community.
- similarly, much of world would see independence from other people as a bad thing.
- such traits are typical of individualist cultures.
Deviation from ideal mental halter as a definition of abnormality
EVALUATION
It sets an unrealistically high standard for mental health
- very few of us attain all Jahoda’s criteria for mental health, and probably none of use achieve all of them at the same time or keep them up for very long.
- therefore this approach would see pretty much all of us as abnormal.
- can see this as positive or negative
- positive side: males it clear to people the ways in which they could benefit from seeking treatment- e.g counselling- to improve their mental health.
- negative: deviation from ideal mental health is probably of no value in thinking about who might benefit from treatment against their will.
Define a phobia
An irrational fear of an object or situation
DSM-5
What is a specific phobia
Phobia of an objet, couch as animal or body part, o a situation such as flying or having an injection
DSM-5
What is social phobia/ social anxiety
Phobia of a social situation such as public speaking or using a public toilet.
DSM-5
What is agoraphobia
Phobia of being outside or in a public space
What are the behavioural characteristics of phobias?
We respond to things or situations we fear by behaving in particular ways.
We respond by feeling high levels of anxiety and trying to escape.
The fear responses in phobias are the same as we experience for any other fear even if the level of fear is irrational.
Describe the behavioural characteristic: PANIC for phobias
A phobic person may panic in response to the phobic stimulus.
Panic may involve a range of behaviours including crying, screaming or running away.
Children may react slightly differently e.g freezing, clinging or having a tantrum
Describe the behavioural characteristic: AVOIDANCE for phobias
Unless the suffer is making conscious effort to face their fear they tend to go to a lot of effort to avoid coming into contact with the phobic stimulus.
Can make it hard to go about daily.
E.g: someone with fear of public toilets may have to limit the time the spend outside the home in relation to how long they can last without a toilet
- can interfere with work, education and social life.
Describe the behavioural characteristic: ENDURANCE for phobias
Alternative to avoidance is endurance, in which a sufferer remains in the presence of the phobic stimulus but continues to experience high levels of anxiety
This may be unavoidable in some situations
E.g for a person who has extreme fear of flying.
Describe the emotional characteristic: ANXIETY for phobias
- phobias classed as anxiety disorder.
- they involve an emotional response of anxiety and fear.
- anxiety is an unpleasant state of high arousal.
- this prevents the sufferer relaxing + makes it difficult to experience any positive emotion.
- anxiety can be long term
- fear is the immediate and extremely unpleasant response we experience when we encounter or think about the phobic stimulus.
Example of emotional characteristics of phobias
ARACHNOPHOBIA
Matt has a phobia of spiders
- his anxiety levels will increase whenever he enters place associated with spiders
- anxiety is general response to the situation
- when he actually sees spider, he experiences fear
Explain why emotional responses to phobic stimulus are unreasonable
Emotional responses we experience in relation to phobic stimuli go beyond what is reasonable.
- fear of spiders is irrational as they cannot harm you
What are cognitive characteristics of phobias
Cognitive element concerned with the ways in which people process information.
People with phobias process information about phobic stimuli differently from other objects or situations.
Describe SELECTIVE ATTENTION TO THE PHOBIC STIMULUS in terms of cognitive characteristics of phobias
If sufferer can see the phobic stimulus it is hard to look away from it it.
- keeping attention on something really dangerous is good thing as it gives us the best chance of reacting quickly to threat
- bit not so useful when the fear is irrational.
A POGONOPHOIC will struggle to concentrate on what they are Doug is there is someone with a beard in the room.
Describe IRRATIONAL BELIEFS as a cognitive stimulus of phobias
A phobic may hold irrational beliefs in relation to phobic stimuli
- e.g
- social phobias can include beliefs like ‘I must always sound intelligent’ or ‘if i blush people will think I’m weak’
- this kind of belief increases the pressure on the sufferer to perform well in social situations.
Describe COGNITIVE DISTORTIONS in terms of cognitive characteristics of phobias
The phobics perceptions of the phobic stimulus may be distorted.
E.g seeing belly buttons as ugly and disgusting
What is depression?
A mental disorder characterised by low mood and low energy levels
What did the DSM-5 suggest Major depression disorder was?
Severe but often short-term depression
What did the DSM-5 say persistent depression disorder was?
Long-term or recurring depression, including sustained major depression and what used to be called dysthymia.
What did DSM-5 say premenstrual dysphoric disorder was?
Disruption to mood prior to and/or during menstruation.
Describe anxiety levels in terms of behavioural characteristics of depression?
- typically suffers of depression have reduced levels energy, making them lethargic.
- this has knock on effects, with suffers tending to withdraw from work, education and social life, in extreme cases this can be so severe that suffer cannot get out of bed.
- in some cases depression can lead to the opposite effect- known PSYCHOMOTOR AGITATION
- agitated individuals struggle to relax + may end up pacing up and down a room.
Describe disruption to sleep and eating behaviour in terms of behavioural characteristics of depression.
Depression is associated with changes to sleeping behaviour.
- suffers may experience reduced sleep or increased need for sleep.
- similarly appetite + eating may increase or decrease, leading to weight gain or loss.
- key point is that such behaviours are disrupted by depression..
Describe aggression and self- harm in terms of behavioural characteristics of depression
Sufferers of depression are often irritable, and in some cases they can become verbally or physically aggressive.
- can have serious knock on effects on the number of aspects of their life.
- example: someone experiencing depression might display verbal aggression by ending a relationship or quitting job.
- depression can also lead to physical aggression directed against self.
- this includes self-harm, or suicide attempts
Describe lowered mood in terms of emotional characteristics of depression
Lowered mood is still a defining emotional element of depression but it’s more pronounced than in the daily kind of experience of feeling lethargic and sad.
Patients often describe themselves as ‘worthless’ and ‘empty’ .
Describe anger in terms of emotional characteristics of depression
Although sufferers tend to experience more negative emotions and fewer positive ones during episodes of depression, this experience of negative emotions is not limited to sadness
Sufferers of depression also frequently experience anger, sometimes extreme anger.
This can be directed at self or others.
On occasions such emotions lead to aggressive or self-harming behaviour
Describe lowered self- esteem in terms of emotional characteristics of depression
Self esteem is the emotional experience of how much we like ourselves.
Suffers of depression tend to report reduced self esteem
I.e like themselves less than usual.
This can be quite extreme, with som stuffers of depression describing a sense of self loathing i.e hating them selves.
What is the cognitive aspect of depression concerns with?
The ways in which people process information.
People suffering from depression or who have suffered depression tend to process information about several aspects of world quite differently from the ‘normal’ ways that people without depression think.
Describe poor concentration in terms of cognitive characteristics of depression
Depression associated with poor levels of concentration.
The suffer may find themselves unable to stick with a task as they usually would
Or might find it hard to make decisions that they would normally find straightforward.
Poor concentration and poor decision making are likely to interfere with the individuals work.
Describe attending to and dwelling on the negative = in terms of cognitive characteristics of depression
When suffering a depressive episode people are inclined to pay more attention to negative aspects of a situation and ignore the positives.
In other words they tend to see a glass as half empty rather than half full.
Sufferers also have a bias towards recalling unhappy events rather the happy ones- the opposite bias that most people have when no depressed.
Describe absolutist thinking in terms of cognitive characteristics of depression
Most situations are not all-good or all-bad, but when a sufferer is depressed they tend to think in these terms.
They sometimes call this ‘bald and white thinking’
This means that when a situation is unfortunate they tend to see it as an absolute disaster.
What is OCD?
A condition characterised by obsessions and/or compulsive behaviour
What did the DSM-5 say OCD is?
Characterised by either obsessions (recurring thoughts, images ect) and/or compulsions (repetitive behaviours such as hand washing). Most people with a diagnosis of OCD have both obsessions and compulsions.
What did DMS-5 say trichotillomania is?
Compulsive hair pulling
