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PSYCHOLOGY PAPER 1 > MEMORY > Flashcards

MEMORY Flashcards

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1
Q

Define coding

A

Format in which info is stored

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2
Q

Define capacity

A

The amount of info that can be held in a memory store

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3
Q

Define duration

A

Length of time info can be held in memory

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4
Q

What is STM capacity, coding type and duration

A

CAPACITY: 5- 9 seconds

CODING: Acoustic (sound)

DURATION: 18-30 seconds

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5
Q

What is LTM coding, capacity and duration

A

CODING: Semantic (meaning)

CAPACITY: unlimited

DURATION: potentially forever

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6
Q

State the produced of research into coding (BADDELEY)

A
  • participants had to recall lists of words in correct order.
  • 4 groups:
  • acoustically similar words
  • acoustically dissimilar word
  • semantically similar words
  • semantically dissimilar words

STM RECALL: particpants had to recall immediately
LTM RECALL: recall after 20 mins

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7
Q

What were the findings of the research into coding (BADDELEY)

A

Findings:
STM recall: tended t do worse with acccousitcally similar words.

LTM recall: did worse with semantically similar words
- this suggests info coded semantically in LTM.

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8
Q

State the research into capacity - JACOBS

A
  • Measured digit span
  • researcher gave participants 4 digits then particpants asked to recall them aloud.
  • if correct, researcher reads out 5 digits and so on until participant can no longer recall in correct order anymore.
  • this determines the digit span.
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9
Q

State the findings into research into capacity (Jacob’s)

A

Found:

  • mean span for digits: 9.3 items
  • mean span for letters: 7.3 items
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10
Q

State what MILLER found about the capacity of STM

A
  • Noticed things come in 7s e.g 7 days in week, 7 deadly sins ect
  • suggest that the span for capacity of STM about 7 items (+ or minus 2)
  • however miller also noted that people can recall 5 words as they can recall 5 letters
  • done this by chucking
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11
Q

Peterson and Peterson research -PROCEDURE

A
  • tested 24 undergrads
  • each student took part in 8 trials
  • 1 trial-= 1 test
  • each student given CONSONANT SYLLABLE to remember
  • also 3 digit number to count back from (prevent rehearsal)
  • each trial told to stop after different amount of time (3,6,9,12,15,16) (RETENTION INTERVAL)
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12
Q

Peterson + Peterson- FINDINGS

A
  • Recall worse as seconds increased
  • suggests STM may be very short duration
  • unless rehearsed
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13
Q

Bahrick research into duration of LTM- procedure

A
  • 392 participants
  • age 17-74
    -high school year books gathers from participants
  • recall tested by:

1) photo recognition test
2) free recall

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14
Q

BAHRICK research into duration of LTM- findings

A
  • participants tested within 15 yrs of graduation were about 90% accurate (photo)
  • after 48yrs, recall declined to about 70% (photo)
  • Free recall= less good than recognition
  • after 15yrs = 60% accurate (free recall)
  • after 48yrs = 30% accurate (free recall)

Shows LTM can last very long time

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15
Q

Research into CODING

EVALUATION

ARTIFICIAL STIMULI

A

LIIMITATION
- study used artifical stimuli rather than meanigful material
- word lists= no personal meaning to participants
- means have to be cautious about generalising findings of different kinds of memory tasks

  • EXAMPLE: when processing more meaningful info, people may use semantic coding even in STM tasks
  • suggests that the findings from this study have limited application
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16
Q

Research into CAPACITY

EVALUATION

LACKING VALIDITY
(Jacob= old)

A
  • LIMITATION
  • Jacob’s study conducted long time ago
  • early research in psych lacked adequate control
  • EXAMPLE:
  • Some participants may have been distracted while they were being tested do they didn’t perform as well as they might have.
  • this would mean that results might NOT be valid because there were CONFOUNDING VARIABLES that weren’t controlled.

HOWEVER- results of study have been confirmed in other research, supporting its validity.

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17
Q

Research into CAPACITY

EVALUATION

NOT SO MANY CHUNKS

A

LIMITATION
- millers research= may have overestimated capacity of STM
- EXAMPLE: Cowan 2001- reviewed other research and conducted that the capacity of STM was only about 4 chunks

  • suggests that’s millers estimate of 5 is more appropriate than 7.
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18
Q

Research in DURATION

EVALUATION

MEANINGLESS STIMULI IN STM STUDY

A

LIMITATION
- Peterson + Petersons study used artifical stimuli material
- trying to memories constant syllables does NOT reflect most real life memory activities where what we are trying to remember is meaningful
- so some may say study lacked EXTERNAL VALIDITY

HOWEVER
- we sometimes do remember fairly meaningless things
E.g phone numbers
- so study not totally irrelevant

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19
Q

Research into DURATION

EVALUATION

HIGH INTERNAL VALIDITY (Bahrick)

A

STRENGTH
- it has higher validity
- real life meaningful memories were studies
- when studies on LTM have been conducted on meaningless pictures to be remembered, recall relates = LOWER (Shepard 1967)
- downside of such real life research= confounding variables not controlled
E.g participants may have looked at yearbooks and rehearsed their memory over years

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20
Q

What is the MSM

A

A representation of how memory works in terms of 3 stores

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21
Q

What are the 3 stores in MSM?

A
  • Sensory register
  • STM
  • LTM
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22
Q

What is the sensory register?

A

The memory store for each of our 5 senses
- Coding in the iconic sensory register= visual
- Coding in echoing sensory register= acoustic

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23
Q

What is the capacity and duration of sensory register?

A

CAPACITY: HUGE (only what is paid attention to can be passed don to STM)

DURATION: very short (less than half a second)

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24
Q

Is the sensory register under cognitive control?

A

NO, info coming from the senses is detected and recorded automatically.

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25
Q

How can things from STM pass to LTM?

A

Rehearsal

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26
Q

What are the 2 types of rehearsal?

A

MAINTENANCE- repeating info

ELABORATIVE- linking to info already in LTM

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27
Q

How is info lost from LTM?

A

DISPLACEMENT (new info)

DECAY (lost over time)

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28
Q

MSM

EVALUATION

EVIDENCE THAT THE STM AND LTM STORES ARE SEPARATE PROCESSES

A

• Glanzer and Cunitz 1966
• Asked participants to free recall word list in any order
• Found recall was much stringer for words at the start and at end of list.
• Results suggest thee are separate short + long term memory stores, with the words first heard entering LTM and being recalled (primary effect) and the most recent words being held by STM and being recalled (recency effect)
• Struggled to recall middle words (displaced)

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29
Q

MSM

EVALUATION

There is more than one type of STM

A

• The MSM states that STM is a unitary store (only 1 type of STM)
• However, evidence from people suffering from AMNESIA shows that this CANNOT BE TRUE
• Example:
• Patient studied KF, patient with amnesia
• found that KF’s STM for digits was very poor when they read them out loud to him
• But recall was much better when he was able to read digits himself.

• Further studies of KF and other people with amnesia showed that there could be another STM store for non verbal sounds (such as noises)

• The unitary STM is a limitation of MSM because research shows that at the very least there must be 1 STM store to process visual info and another to process auditory info

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30
Q

MSM

EVALUATION

There is more than 1 type of rehearsal

A

• Acorfing to MSM, what matters is rehearsal is the amount of it that you do.
• So more rehearsal of info, the more likely you transfer it to LTM.

• HOWEVER: CRAIK+WATKINS 1973- found that his prediction = wrong
• What really matter sis rehearsal type.
• Discovered 2 types of rehearsal
• MAINTENANCE REHEARSAL = type described in MSM
• But this type does not transfer info to LTM
• Just maintains it in STM
• ELABORATIVE REHEARSAL- needed for long-term storage
• Occurs when toy link the info to your existing knowledge, or you think about what it means

• very serious limitation of MSM as it is another research finding that cannot be explained by model.

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31
Q

MSM

EVALUATION

Cognitive experiments testing aspects of the MSM are often highly artificial

A
  • highly artificial
  • lacks external validity
  • low ecological validity, results collected in lab environment may not be generalisable to other naturalistic situations like school and work
  • also lack of mundane realism, experimental tasks testing the MSM are unlike how people use their memory in real life scenarios
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32
Q

What are the 3 types of LTM?

A

Episodic- episodes in our lives
E.G a gig you went to last week

Semantic- knowledge of the world
E.G knowledge of things like animals

Procedural- actions/ skills/ how we do things
E.G driving a car

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33
Q

What is a declarative/ explicit memory?

A

Consciously recalled and can be put into words

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34
Q

What is a non declarative/ implicit memory?

A

Can’t be consciously recalled and is difficult to put into words

E.g how to actually walk/ride a bike

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35
Q

What types of long term memory are declarative and which are non declarative

A

DECLARATIVE= episodic and semantic

NON DECLARATIVE= procedural

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36
Q

List facts/ features of episodic memory

A
  • declarative
  • time stamped (stored with reference to time + place)
  • recalled consciously
  • autobiographical (you are part of the memory)
  • easiest memories to forget
  • level of emotion felt at time, influences strength of memory
  • first coding in prefrontal cortex, stored across the brain connected by hippocampus
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37
Q

List facts/features about semantic memory

A
  • declarative
  • may not recall when learnt/encoded (not time stamped)
  • recalled consciously
  • not autobiographical (nit in semantic memory)
  • resistant to forgetting
  • how deeply processed influences strength
  • parahippocampal cortex
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38
Q

Lists facts/ features about procedural memory

A
  • non declarative
  • often learnt in childhood
    -not timestamped
  • not recalled consciously
  • very resistant to forgetting
  • not autobiographical
  • how many times practiced influences strength of memory
  • motor cortex and cerebellum
39
Q

Types of long term memory

EVALUATION

CLINICAL EVIDENCE
(Clive wearing and HM)

A
  • both severely impaired due to amnesia
  • episodic memory severely impaired
  • semantic memories relatively unaffected
  • procedural memories also intact
  • Clive could still play piano (was world class musician)
  • but couldn’t remember musical education
  • knows he has kids but not their names
  • knows wife but everytime he sees her he thinks its the fist time in ages.
  • evidence supports Tulvings view that there are different memory stores in LTM
  • one store can be damaged, others unaffected
  • clear evidence that not only these types of memory different but also stored different places in brain.
40
Q

Types of LTM

EVALUATION

NEROIMAGING EVIDENCE

A

• Evidence from brain scans studying that different types of memory are stored in different parts of brain.
• EXAMPLE:
• Tulving 1994- got participants to perform various memory tasks while their brains were scanned using PET scanner. Found episodic + semantic memories both recalled in prefrontal cortex
• Left prefrontal cortex= recalling semantic memories
• Right pre frontal cortex = episodic memories

• strength of these findings is it supports view that there is physical reality to different types of LTM in brain.

41
Q

Types of LTM

EVALUATION

Three types of LTM or 2?

A

• Cohen + Squire 1980, disagreed with Tulving’s division of LTM into 3 types.
• They accept that prodedural memories represent one type of LTM.
• But argue episodic and semantic memories stored together in one LTM store that they call DECLARITAVE MEMORY i.e memories that can be consciously recalled.
• In contrast to procedural memories that are non declarative.

42
Q

Types of LTM

EVALUATION

Other evaluation

A

• the use of ideographic research e.g Clive wearing allows researchers to study memory in way that would be impossible experimentally.

• Problems with generalising the findings of these clinical case studies with 1 or fewer individuals, to explaining how memory works in the wider population

• There could be other unknown issues unique to that individual that can explain the behaviour.

43
Q

What is the WMM?

A

A representation of STM

  • it suggests that STM is dynamic processor of different types of info using sub-units coordinated by a central executive.
44
Q

Who proposed the WMM and why?

A

BADDELEY + HITCH 1974

  • to replace the STM store of the MSM sue to criticisms of the STM.
  • STM must be more complex than just 1 singular unitary store that only exists to pass info on to LTM.
45
Q

What are all the sections in the WMM?

A

Central executive

Phonological loop:
- primary acoustic store
- articulatory process

Visual spatial sketchpad:
- visual cache
- inner scribe

Episodic buffer

46
Q

Describe the central executive

A
  • head of model
  • controls attention
  • receives sense info + filters before passing on to sub system
  • limited capacity (4 items)
  • works in one type of info at time
  • but can switch attention between different inputs
47
Q

Describe the phonological loop

A

Phonological loop:
- deals with auditory info
- limited capcity (about 2 seconds of words)

Primary acoustic store:
- words you hear
- holds info via sub vocal repetition

Articulatory process:
- allows maintenance rehearsal (repeating sounds or words)

48
Q

Describe Visio spatial sketchpad

A

Visual spatial sketchpad:
- processes visual + spatially coded info
- limited cavity about 3-4 objects

Visual cache:
- passive store in form of colour

Inner scribe:
- active store holding the relationship between objects in 3D shapes

49
Q

Describe the episodic buffer

A

Episodic buffer:
• added to WMM in 2000
• As model needed a general store to hold the integrate into from VSS, PL, CE and LTM
• as a response to criticism of model

50
Q

WMM

EVALUATION

CLINICAL STUDY (KF)

A

• Support for WMM comes from Shallice + Warringtons 1970 case study KF
• After damage happened to KF, had poor STM ability for verbal info but could process visual info
• I.e he had difficulty with sounds but could recall letters and digits.
• This suggests that just his phonological loop had been damaged leaving other areas of memory intact.

• Supports the existence of a separate visual and acoustic store.
• However evidence from brain-damaged patients may not be reliable because it concerns unique cases with patients who have had traumatic experiences.

51
Q

WMM

EVALUATION

DUAL TASK PERFORMANCE (BADDELEY study)

A

• BADDELEY 1975
• Particpants asked to perform 2 visual taks, tracking racing moving lights at the same time as describing the angles og letter F.
• Or a visual and verbal task.
• FOUND:
• That performances were much better when the tasks were not using the same processing

• it’s suggest s that the VSS and the PL exist as separate systems and the capacity of VSS can be overwhelmed with visual info.

52
Q

WMM

EVALUATION

LACK OF CLARITY OF CENTRAL EXECUTIVE

A

• Cognitive psychologists suggest that this component of WMM is unsatisfactory and doesn’t really explain anything.
• BADDELEY himself recognised this when he said ‘it’s the most important but least understood part of working memory’.

• The central executive needs to be more clearly specified than just ‘attention’
• So psychologists believe it may consist of separate components
• This means WMM hasn’t fully been expanded.

53
Q

WMM

EVALUATION

Research usually lab based

A
  • therefore highly controlled with string internal validity
  • however issues with external validity in most studies n memory task lack mundane realism
  • therefore may not be generalised to how we use memory in day to day life
54
Q

What is interference?

A

Forgetting because 1 memory blocks another, causing 1 or both memories to be distorted/ forgotten

55
Q

What is proactive interference?

A

Forgetting occurs when older memories (already stored) disrupt the recall of newer memories

  • degree of forgetting is greater when memories are similar
56
Q

What is retroactive interference

A

Forgetting occurs when newer memories disrupt the recall of older memories already stored.

  • degree of forgetting greater when memories are similar
57
Q

What is the relevance of similarity in interference?

A

Interference more likely to occur when 2 pieces of info are similar

  • this is due to RESPONSE COMPETITION
58
Q

What is the relevance of time sensitivity in interference?

A

Interference is less likely to occur when there is a large gap between the instances of learning.

59
Q

McGeoch + McDonald study into effects of similarity on retroactive interference

Procedure

A
  • particpants learn list of 10 words and then learn new list and recall original list after

Interfering material (stopped rehearsal of original list):
- synonyms
- antonyms
- unrelated to original words
- constant syllables
- 3 digit numbers
- no new list (control group)

60
Q

McGeoch + McDonald study into effects of similarity on retroactive interference

FOUND

A
  • When participants then recalled original list of words, their performance depended on nature of second list.
  • most similar material (synonyms) produced worse recall
  • shows that interference is strongest when the memories are similar
61
Q

Greenberg and Underwood 1950- research into proactive interference

Procedure

A
  • asked participants to learn 10 paired word lists
  • then gave participants 48hrs before recall
  • repeated 4 times
62
Q

Greenberg and Underwood 1950- research into proactive interference

Findings

A
  • found the number of correctly recalled word pairs decreased the more word pairs had been learnt previously.
  • this provides evidence for pro-active interference, as previously learnt word combos caused confusion in the coding of the later lists, interfering with the accurate recall of later learnt word lists.
63
Q

What is retrieval failure?

A
  • form of forgetting
  • occurs when we don’t have the necessary cues to assess memory
  • memory is available but cannot access it
64
Q

What is the encoding specific principle?

A
  • states that if a cue is to help us recall information, it has to be present at encoding (learn material) and at retrieval (when recalling it).
65
Q

CONTEXT DEPENDENT FORGETTING
- RESEARCH

  • GODDEN + BADDELEY 1975

PROCEDURE

A
  • Carried out study of deep divers working underwater
  • divers learnt list of words either underwater or on land
  • then asked to recall words either underwater or on land

4 conditions:

LEARN ON LAND- RECALL ON LAND

LEARN ON LAND- RECALL ON LAND

LEARN UNDERWATER- RECALL ON LAND

LEARN UNDERWATER - RECALL UNDERWATER

66
Q

CONTEXT DEPENDENT FORGETTING
- RESEARCH

  • GODDEN + BADDELEY 1975

Findings

A
  • accurate recall was 40% LOWER in the non- matching conditions
  • external cues available were different from the ones at recall and this led to retrieval failure
67
Q

STATE DEPENDENT FORGETTING

CARTER + CASSADAY 1988

Procedure

A
  • gave anti histamine drugs to particpants
  • anti histamine had mild sedative effects, making participants slightly drowsy.
  • creates an internal physiological state different from ‘normal’ state of being awake and alert
  • participants has to learn list of words and passages and the recall it.

4 conditions:

• learn on drug- recall when on it
• Learn on drug- recall not on it
• Learn not on drug- recall when on it
• Learn not on drug- recall when not on drug.

68
Q

STATE DEPENDENT FORGETTING

CARTER + CASSADAY 1988

Findings

A
  • in conditions where there was a mismatch between internal state at learning + recall, performance on memory test was significantly worse
  • so when cues are absent, there is some forgetting
69
Q

Retro + pro active interference

EVALUATION

Evidence from lab studies

A

EVIDENCE FROM LAB STUDIES

• Lots of lab experiments have been carried out into this explanation into forgetting.
• McGeoch + McDonald’s research
• Most of the studies show that both types of interference are very likely to be common ways we forget info from LTM.
• Strength as lab experiments control the effects of irrelevant influences so give us confidence that interference is a valid explanation for at least some forgetting.

70
Q

Retro + pro active interference

EVALUATION

ARTIFICIAL MATERIAL;

A

• Much greater chance that interference will be demonstrated in the lab than real-life situations for one good reason.
• The stimulus materials used inmost studies= list of words
• Learning lots of actual words is def more realistic than learnig lists of consonant syllables.
• But this is still distant from things we learn and try to remember in everyday life e.g peoples faces, birthdays ect.
• Limitation because use of artificial tasks makes interference much more likely in lab
• Interference may not be as likely an explanation for forgetting in everyday life as is in lab.

71
Q

Retro + pro active interference

EVALUATION

REAL LIFE STUDIES

A

• Some research studies have considered interference effects in more everyday situations.
• BADDELEY + Hitch 1977- wanted to find out if interference was a better explanation for forgetting than the passage of time.
• Asked rugby players to try to remember names of teams they had played so far in the season, week by week.
• Because most of the players had missed games, for some the ‘last team’ they played might have been 2 weeks ago, or 3 or more.
• Results very clearly showed that accurate recall did not depend on how long ago matches took place.
• Much more important was the number of games they played in the meantime.
• So a players recall of a team from 3 weeks ago was better if they had played no matches since then.
• Study shows interference explanations can apply to at least some everyday situations.

72
Q

Retrieval failure

EVALUATION

Supporting evidence

A

• The studies by GODDEN + Baddleey and Carter + Cassaday= 2 examples of research.
• Eysenck 2010- goes so far as to argue that retrival failure is perhaps the main reason for forgetting from LTM
• STRENGTH because supporting evidence increases the validity of an explanation.
• Especially true when the evidence shows that retrival failtire occurs in real-life situations as well as in the highly controlled conditions of the lab.

73
Q

Retrieval failure

EVALUATION

Questioning context effects

A

• BADDELEY 1997- argues that context effects are actually not very strong, especially in real life.
• Different contexts have to be very different indeed before an effect is seen.
• Example:
• It would be hard to find an enviroment as different from land as underwater.
• Contrast, learning something in one room and recalling in another unlikely to result in much forgetting because these environments generally not diffferent enough.

• limitation as it means that the real-life applications of retrival failure due to contextual cues don’t actually explain much forgetting.

74
Q

Retrieval failure

EVALUATION

Recall verus recognition

A

• The contextual effect may be related to the kind of memory being tested.
• GODDEN + BADDELEY 1980- replicated their underwater experiment but used a recognition test instead of recall- particpants had to say whether they recognised a word read to the from the list, instead of retrieving it for themselves.
• When recognition was tested there was no context- dependent effect; performance was same in all 4 conditions

• further limitation of context effects because it means that the presence or absence of cues only affects memory when you test it in a certain way.

75
Q

What are eye witness testimonies?

A

Ability of people to remember details of events

  • can be affected by factors like misleading info, leading questions and anxiety
76
Q

What is a leading question?

A

Question which, because of way it is phrased, suggests a certain answer.

Example: ‘ was he knife in the accused left hand?’- suggests answer is ‘left hand’.

77
Q

Research into leading questions affecting EWT?

Loftus and Palmer 1974

Procedure

A
  • particpants (students) watch film clips of car accident then answer questions about accident
  • in critical question (leading question) particpants asked hoe fast cars were travelling
    ‘ about how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?’
  • leading question because verb ‘hit’ suggests the speed car was travelling.
  • there were 5 groups of participants asked to say how fast cars travelling
  • VERBS: hit, contacted, bumped, collided and smashed
78
Q

Research into leading questions affecting EWT?

Loftus and Palmer 1974

Findings

A
  • mean estimated speed was calculated for each group of particpants.
  • Verb CONTACTED- mean estimated speed= 31.8 mph
  • Verb SMASHED- mean estimated speed= 40.5 mph
  • leading question biased the EW recall of event.
79
Q

What is the RESPONSE- BIAS EXPLANATION?

A

Suggests that the wording of the question has no real effect on participants memories, but just influences how they decide to answer

80
Q

What is SUB-SITUATION EXPLANATION?

A

The wording of a leading question actually changes the participants memory of film clip

81
Q

SUPPORTING EVIDENCE FOR LOFTUS AND PALMERS RESEARCH ON LEADING QUESTIONS

A

Loftus and palmer 1974- conducted 2nd experiment that supported the sub- situation explanation- the wording of a leading question actually changes the participants memory of film clip.

  • particpants who originally heard ‘smashed’ later ere more likely to report seeing broken glass (there was none)than those who heard ‘hit’
  • critical verb altered their memory of incident.
82
Q

What is post event discussion?

A

When co-witnesses to crime discuss it with each other, their EWT may become contaminated.

  • this is because they combine (mis)info of other witnesses with their own memories.
83
Q

Research into POST- EVENT DISCUSSION

GABBERT 2000

Procedure

A
  • studied participants in pairs.
  • each participant watched a video of same crime, but filmed from different points of view
  • meant each participant could see elements in event others couldn’t
  • both participants then discussed what they had seen before individually completing test of recall.
84
Q

Research into POST- EVENT DISCUSSION

GABBERT 2000

Findings

A
  • found 71% of particpants mistakenly recalled aspects of the event they did not see in video but picked up on in discussion
  • corresponding figure in control group (no discussion) 0%
  • Gabbert el al concluded witnesses often go along with each other, either to win social approval or because they believe other witnesses are right or wrong
  • called MEMORY CONFORMITY
85
Q

FACTORS EFFECTING EWT- MISLEADING INFO

EVALUATION

Useful real-life applications

A

• Strength of all research into misleading info is that it has hugely important practical uses in real world.
• Where consequences of inaccurate EWT can be very serious.
• EXAMPLE:
• Loftus believes that leading questions can have such a distorting effect on memory that police officers need to be very careful about how they phrase their questions when interviewing eyewitnesses.

• research into EWT is one area in psychology that psychologists believe they can make an important positive difference to lies of real people
• For instance improving way legal system works and by appearing in court trials as expert witnesses.

86
Q

FACTORS EFFECTING EWT- MISLEADING INFO

EVALUATION

The tasks are artificial

A

• Limitation of Loftus + Plamer’s study= their particpants watched film clips of car incidents.\
• very different experience from witnessing real accident (mainly as they lack stress)
• Somme evidence that emotions can have influence on memory.
• Limitation as studies that use such artificial tasks may tell us little about how leading questions affect EWT in cases of real accidents/ crimes.
• could even be that researchers (such as Loftus) are too pessimistic about the accuracy of EWT

87
Q

FACTORS EFFECTING EWT- MISLEADING INFO

EVALUATION

Individual differences

A

• Evidence that older people less accurate than younger people when giving eyewitness reports.
• Example:
• Anastasi + Rhodes 2006- found that people in age group 18-25 and 35-45 were more accurate than people in age group 55-78 yrs.

• However, all age groups were more accurate when identifying people of their own age group (OWN AGE BIAS)
• Research studies often use younger people as the target to identify + this may mean that some age groups appear less accurate but in fact this is not true.

88
Q

What is a cognitive interview?

A

Method of interviewing eyewitnesses to help them retrieve more accurate memories

  • uses 4 main techniques, all based on well- established psychological knowledge of human memory.
89
Q

Who proposed cognitive interviews?

A

FISHER + GEISELMAN 1992
- Argued EWT could be improved if police used better techniques when interviewing witnesses.

  • recommended such techniques should be based on psychological insights into how memory works
90
Q

What are the 4 technique for cognitive interview?

A
  1. REPORT EVERYTHING

• Witnesses encouraged to include every single detail of event even if it may seem irrelevant
• Seemingly trivial details may be important and may trigger other important memories.

  1. REINSTATE THE CONTEXT
    • Witness should return to original crime scene ‘in mind’ and imagine the enviroment (e.g weather) and her emotions (e.g what were they feeling)
    • This is related to CONTEXT- DEPENDENT FORGETTING.
  2. REVERSE THE OLDER
    • Event should be recalled in different chronological order to original sequence (e.g from final point back to beginning, or from middle to beginning).
    • Done to prevent people reporting their expectations of how event must have happened rather than the actual events,
    • Also prevents dishonesty.
  3. CHANGE PERSPECTIVE
    • Witnesses should recall incident from others people perspectives
    • Example: how it would have appeared to other witnesses or to perpetrator.
    • Done to disrupt the effect of expectations + schema on recall.
91
Q

Explain the ENHANCED COGNITIVE INTERVIEW

A
  • FISHER ET AL- developed some addition element to cognitive interview to focus on the social dynamics of the interactions
  • e.g interviewer needs to know when to establish eye contact and when to get rid of it.
  • enhanced CI also includes ideas such as:
  • reducing eyewitness anxiety
  • minimising distractions
  • getting witnes to speak slowly
  • asking open- ended questions
92
Q

COGNITIVE INTERVIEWS

EVALUATION

The CI is time-consuming

A

• Police may be reluctant to use the CI as takes much more time than standard police interviews.
• Example:
• More time needed to establish rapport with witness and allow them to relax.
• The CI also requires special training, many forces have not been able to provide more than a few hours.
• Means it’s unlikely that the ‘proper’ version of the CI is actually used, which may explain why police have not been that impressed by it.

93
Q

COGNITIVE INTERVIEWS

EVALUATION

Some elements may be more valuable than others

A

• Milne + Bull 2002- found each individual element was equally valuable.
• Each technique used singly produced more info than the standard police interview.
• HOWEVER:
• Milne + Bull found that using a combination of REPORT EVERYTHING and CONTEXT REINSTATMENT produced better recall than any of other conditions.
• This confirmed police officers suspicions that some aspects of CI are more useful than others.

• this finding = strength as it suggests that at least these 2 elements should be used to improve police interviewing of eyewitnesses even if full CI isn’t used.
• This in turn increases credibility of CI amongst those who use it- police officers.

94
Q

COGNITIVE INTERVIEWS

EVALUATION

Support for the effectiveness of the enhanced cognitive interview

A

• research suggests that enhanced CI may offer special benefits.
• Example:
• Meta analysis by Kohnken et al 1999 combined data from 50 studies
• Enhanced CI consistently provided more correct info than the standard interview used by police.

• strength as studies such as one indicate that there are real practical benefits to the police of using the enhanced version of CI.
• The research shows that it gives the police a greater chance of catching + charging criminals, which is beneficial to society as a whole.

PSYCHOLOGY PAPER 1 (4 decks)

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