Psychopathology Flashcards
define statistical infrequency and give an example of how a behaviour is classed as ‘abnormal’
definition: behaviour that is rarely seen is considered abnormal- known as statistical infrequency
for example, talking to the dead.
provide a strength and a weakness for the statistical infrequency definition of abnormality.
strength: objectivity- nature of this method is highly factual and does not include the influence of one’s opinion (bias)
weakness: does not account for cultural differences- some behaviours, e.g. talking to the dead, are considered normal in African Cultures, but it ‘abnormal’ in the UK
define failure to function adequately and name the 2 psychologists that proposed this.
definition: when an individual no longer conforms to interpersonal rules and behave in an irrational or dangerous way.
psychologists: Rosenhan and Seligman
provide a strength and a weakness of the failure to function definition
strength: behaviour is observable- the inability to conform to everyday life, e.g. maintaining a job, can be observed by others and aid in the introduction of necessary intervention
weakness: how do you define everyday life? therefore, judgement is subjective and may not accurately reflect the position of the individual
define deviation from ideal mental health and name the psychologist
definition: a criteria of 6 the identifies what makes an individual ‘normal’- then highlights that anyone who doesn’t comply with the criteria is considered abnormal
psychologist: Marie Jahoda (1958)
a strength and weakness of deviation from ideal mental health
strength: positive outlook on mental health- focuses on what is good/beneficial for the individual instead of the other way round
weakness: unrealistic/feasibility- if we were to go by Jahoda’s criteria, majority will be classed as abnormal- makes the ‘ideal’ mental health impossible to achieve
state the behavioural, emotional and cognitive features of a phobia
Behavioural- panic, e.g. crying
avoidance, e.g. avoiding situations where phobic
stimuli is present
Emotional- Anxiety
Irrational responses to stimulus
Cognitive- Irrational beliefs
Selective attention, e.g. difficulty in focusing on
anything else when in the presence of stimulus
state behavioural, emotional and cognitive features to depression
Behavioural- Low activity levels
Disruption to sleep and eating behaviours
Emotional- Lowered mood
Anger
Cognitive- Poor concentration
Absolutist thinkingstate behavioural, emotional and cognitive features to OCD
Behavioural- Compulsions, e.g. repetitive hand-washing
Avoidance
Emotional- Anxiety/ Distress
Guilt/ Disgust
Cognitive- Obsessive thoughts
Excessive anxietybriefly explain the two process model to explaining phobias
Classical conditioning- UCS- triggers fear response (UCR)
NS- associated with the UCS
NS now becomes a CS- produces fear,
which is now the CR
Operant conditioning- negative reinforcement- producing a behaviour that avoids an unpleasent response. E.g. phobia of spiders- avoiding old/ dirty places
what case study can be used to support this model?
Watson and Raynor- Little Albert study
provide a strength and a weakness for the two-process model
strength: practical application- due to good explanatory power, research has led to development of treatments such as flooding and systematic desensitisation
weakness: overlooks influence of Biological Preparedness- an innate fear of stimuli we perceive as dangerous, e.g. snakes. an issue to this explanation as it suggests that there is more to phobias than conditioning
briefly describe the processes involved in systematic desensitisation.
aim-based on classical conditioning- patient is counter conditioned- taught a new association to stimulus
formation of an anxiety hierarchy- a list of fearful stimuli from least to worst
relaxation techniques practised at every level
evaluate systematic desensitisation (SD)
strength- suitable for a diverse range of patients- for example, patients with learning difficulties may find it hard to understand and engage in cognitive therapies, hence SD may be most suitable as it is simple and doesn’t require skills such as self-reflection
strength- effective- Gilroy et al- followed up 42 patients who underwent SD for arachnophobia in three 45-min sessions and were compared to a control group
at 3 and 33 months- SD group were less fearful than control group- suggests that SD is effective
explain the process of flooding
immediate exposure to phobic stimulus- this essentially means that the patient does not experience a gradual build up and is immediately exposed to the phobic stimulus
Learning through extinction- avoidance is not an option in this case, so the patient quickly learns that phobic stimulus is harmless through the exhaustion of their fear response
during flooding, why is it crucial for the therapist to gain full informed consent?
The process of flooding is not unethical, but is a traumatic experience- so the patient has to be made fully aware of what to expect during the session
evaluate flooding as a treatment of phobias
weakness- less effective for some phobias- flooding can be used to treat simple phobias such as arachnophobia, but may be less effective for social phobias (for e.g.). this is because a social phobia consists of cognitive and behavioural aspects that are not learnt through conditioning. hence, cannot be used as a method of treatment on a larger scale
strength- cost and time effective- flooding only requires one session, hence patients may be more keen to resort to flooding as opposed to SD, which needs multiple sessions.
this can also be due to the idea that patients, during SD, may lose motivation to keep going and drop out, hence, flooding ma be more accessible to patients with busy schedules.
briefly explain Beck’s theory of depression
faulty information processing: when depressed individuals pay attention to all the negative aspects of a situation and ignore the positives
negative self-schemas: when an individual interprets all info. about themselves in a (-)ve way
(-)ve triad: (-)ve views about the world- e.g. the world is a cold
place
(-)ve views about the future- e.g. there is no hope in…
(-)ve views about the self- e.g. I am worthless
explain Ellis’s ABC model as a cognitive explanation to depression
A- activating event- the trigger to irrational thinking, e.g. experiencing negative events such as failing an exam
B- beliefs- irrational thoughts caused by the activating event- e.g. belief that it is a complete disaster if things didn’t work out
C- consequences- emotional and behavioural consequences- e.g. lowered mood, depression etc.
provide a strength and a weakness of the Cognitive Theory
strength- Practical application- Beck’s cognitive theory formed the basis of CBT- as the components that make up the negative triad can be easily distinguished and challenged. therefore, his theory translates well into therapy
weakness- doesn’t explain all aspects of depression- Jarrett (2013) stated that some severely depresses patients suffer hallucinations and bizarre beliefs- for e.g. Cotard Syndrome, belief in zombies- Beck’s and Ellis’ cognitive theory cannot explain this.
What does a therapist practice when using CBT as a method of treatment
Stage 1- patient and therapist work together to identify negative thoughts about the self, world and future (negative triad)
Stage 2- ‘patient as scientist’- patients are encouraged to test the basis of reality to their irrational beliefs. for e.g., they may be set homework to note down every time someone was nice to them- this will then be used in later sessions to prove the patient wrong.
explain the processes involved in REBT
-REBT extends the ABC model into the ABCDE model (D-dispute E-effect)
1) challenging irrational beliefs- broken down into two categories: empirical argument- is there evidence to support belief?
Logical argument- does this belief follow on from the facts?
2) Behavioural activation- aims to help individual reduce avoidance of situations and increase engagement in activities that improve mood. e.g. sports
evaluate CBT & REBT as cognitive treatments to depression
strength- CBT is effective- March et al- compared effects of CBT, anti-depressants and combination of both in 327 depresses adolescents. found that 81% in CBT group, 81% in anti-depressant group and 86% in the combination of both group reported reduced symptoms- which suggests that CBT alone is just as effective as medication
weakness- success may be due to therapist-patient relationship- Lubrosky (2002)- there are very little differences across all cognitive therapies, hence the essential component is the rs between the patient and the therapist. if quality of rs is successful then therapy is most likely to be successful too
provide the genetic explanations to OCD
OCD is polygenic- which means that there isn’t just 1 gene that causes OCD, but many genes working together. for e.g. Taylor found evidence of up to 230 genes involved in OCD.
however, there are Candidate genes which create a VULNERABILITY to OCD, such as serotonin and dopamine
OCD is aetiologically heterogeneous- which means that one group of genes can cause a certain TYPE of OCD in one individual, but a different TYPE in another
provide neural explanations to OCD
Serotonin- low levels of serotonin lowers mood, as mood-relevant info. does not take place and mood alongside other mental processes, e.g. regulation of self-control, are disrupted
Decision-making in the frontal lobe is impaired- evident in some cases of OCD, an individual may seem to make irrational or even dangerous decisions, which is linked to the dysfunction in the lateral frontal lobe of the brain
evaluate the biological approach to explaining OCD
strength- research support- Nestadt et al- study of concordance rates in MZ and DZ twins found that 68% of MZ twins shared OCD in comparison to 31% of DZ twins- suggests that OCD has a biological basis
weakness- interactionist approach- even though studies such as the one mentioned above prove that disorders like OCD may have a genetic influence, there is no evidence to suggest a 100% chance of heritability. this therefore suggests that the biological approach may not offer a full exp. to OCD- hence an interactionist approach (diathesis-stress model) may be more suitable
briefly state the purpose of drug therapy
aim- to increase/decrease levels of neurotransmitters in the brain to alter their activity
for e.g. drugs that increase production of serotonin in the brain
what is the function of an SSRI?
- prevent reabsorption and breakdown of serotonin
- increases levels in the synapse continues to stimulate the post synaptic neuron
- takes approx. 3-4 months before impact is evident on symptoms
- often used alongside CBT
alternatives to SSRI?
SNRIs- used as a second line defence for patients that do not respond to SSRIs
-increases levels of serotonin and NORADRENALINE
evaluate the biological approach to treating OCD
strength- cost-effective and non-disruptive- drugs, as opposed to psychological therapy, are much cheaper and affordable for patients struggling with OCD. they are also non-disruptive to the patient’s life as it is easy to take and can comply with any individual’s life events/ schedules
weakness- side-effects- vary from indigestion to a loss of sex-drive. for example, Clomipramine (optional) have more serious side effects such as erection problems, suffered by more than 1 in 10 patients
