psychopathology Flashcards
what are the 4 definitions of abnormality?
statistical infrequency
deviation from social norms
failure to function adequately
deviation from ideal mental health
what is statistical infrequency?
occurs when an individual has a less common characteristic
e.g being less intelligent than the majority of a population
what is deviation from social norms?
concerns behaviour that is different from the accepted standardised behaviour in a community
what is failure to function adequately?
when someone is unable to cope with ordinary demands of day to day life
what is deviation from ideal mental health?
when someone does not meet a set of criteria for ideal mental health
what is an example of statistical infrequency?
IQ and intellectual disability disorder
the average IQ is 100
the normal distribution is 85-115
people under 70 are abnormal and are often diagnosed with IDD
what is normal distribution?
a symmetrical spread of data that forms a bell shape
average is at the peak
what are culture norms and how does it effect the definition for deviation of social norms?
social norms can be different for different generations and cultures
few behaviours are considered universal
eg homosexuality
what is an example of deviation of social norms?
antisocial personality disorder
people with apd are considered abnormal because they don’t conform to moral standards
evaluation
statistical infrequency
strength : real world application
useful in diagnosis eg IDD
helpful in assessing conditions eg BDI
evaluation
statistical infrequency
limitation : unusual characteristics can be positive
IQ scores above 130 is unusual but not regarded as undesirable or needing treatment
statistical infrequency can defined abnormality but shouldn’t be the sole basis
evaluation
statistical infrequency
limitation: benefit vs problem
if someone is happy there is no benefit labelling them as abnormal
the label may carry social stigma eg IDD
evaluation
deviation from social norms
strength : real world application
useful on diagnosis of antisocial personality disorder
helpful in diagnosis of schizophrenia
useful in psychiatric diagnosis
evaluation
deviation from social norms
limitation: situationally and culturally relative
a person from one culture may be abnormal but not in another culture as they may have different standards
eg hearing voices may be acceptable in one culture but is not in UK
difficult to judge deviation from one context to another
evaluation
deviation from social norms
limitation: human rights abuse
reliance on deviation from social norms can lead to abuse of human rights eg nymphomania to control females
use of dsn may do more harm then good
what are Rosenhan and Seligman’s signs of failure to function adequately?
no longer conform to interpersonal rules
experience severe distress
behave irrationally or dangerously
when and who came up the the signs for failing to function adequately?
Rosenhan and Seligman 1989
what is an example of failure to function adequately?
intellectual disability disorder
failure to function adequately can be combined with statistical infrequency to diagnose IDD
the person is not able to cope with everyday demands due to low IQ
what is Johoda’s criteria for ideal mental health?
no symptoms or distress rational self perception self-actualisation cope with stress realistic view of the world good self-esteem independence successful work positive relationships and friendships
when and who came up with the criteria for ideal mental health?
Johoda 1958
how does deviation from ideal mental health overlap with other definitions of abnormality?
the inability to keep a job can be failure to function adequately and deviation from ideal mental health
evaluation
failure to function adequately
strength: threshold for professional help
mind charity – 25% of people experience symptoms of mental disorders
Failure to function criteria provides a way to target treatment and services to those who need it
evaluation
failure to function adequately limitation: leads to discrimination/social control
hard to distinguish between failure to function and conscious deviation from social norms
E.g. people may choose an alternative lifestyle but would be labelled abnormal

evaluation
failure to function adequately
Limitation: hard to judge failure to function adequately
most people can’t cope with e.g. bereavement which is a normal reaction to circumstance
however some people need professional help to adjust to bereavement
hard to base a judgement of abnormality and failure to function
evaluation
deviation from ideal mental health strength : comprehensive approach
includes a range of criteria for mental health
allows mental health to be discussed meaningfully with professionals
provides a checklist against which we can assess ourselves and others
evaluation
deviation from ideal mental health limitation : culture biased
criteria for ideal mental health is limited to USA in Western Europe
E.g. self-actualisation is not recognised in other countries
E.g. the value of independence varies across Europe (high in Germany, low in Italy)
difficult to apply the concept of ideal mental health one culture to another
evaluation
deviation from ideal mental health limitation : high standards
Small number of people match jahoda’s criteria for mental health
impossible set standards to match
however the comprehensive criteria may be valuable to someone wanting to improve mental health
is not appliable to all people
What is a phobia?
Irrational fear of an object or situation
What are behavioural characteristics?
The way people react
what are three examples of behavioural characteristics of phobias?
Panic
avoidance
endurance
what is panic?
involves a range of behaviours e.g. crying screaming running away from the phobic stimulus
what is avoidance?
considerable effort to prevent contact with phobic stimulus
makes every day life difficult
what is endurance?
alternative behaviour to avoidance
Involves remaining with the phobic stimulus in continuing to experience anxiety
what are emotional characteristics?
A persons feelings or mood
what are three examples of emotional characteristics of phobias?
anxiety
fear
unreasonable emotional response
What is anxiety?
unpleasant state of high arousal prevents individual relaxing
difficult to experience positive emotion
what is fear?
immediate, extreme and unpleasant response when encountering of thinking about the phobic stimulus
what is an Unreasonable emotional response?
disproportionate to the threat posed e.g. an arachnophobic having a strong emotional response to a tiny spider
what are cognitive characteristics?
The process of knowing including thinking reasoning remembering and believing
what are three cognitive characteristics of phobias?
selective attention
irrational beliefs
cognitive distortions
what is selective attention?
selective attention to the phobic stimulus is when a person finds it hard to look away from it
what are irrational beliefs?
 unfounded thoughts in relation to phobic stimuli that can’t be easily explained and don’t have a basis in reality
E.g. social phobia beliefs could include ‘if I blush people will think I’m weak’
what are cognitive distortions?
inaccurate and unrealistic thinking
E.g. mycophobics see mushrooms is disgusting
What is depression?
A mental disorder characterised by low mood and low energy levels
What are three behavioural characteristics of depression?
activity levels
disruption to sleep and eating behaviour
aggression and self harm
How does depression affect activity levels?
reduced levels of energy making them lethargic
can lead to the withdrawal from work education and social life
psychomotor agitation – individual struggles to relax e.g. paces
How does depression disrupt sleep in eating behaviour?
insomnia – reduced sleep
Hypersomnia – increased sleep
increased or decreased appetite causing weight gain or loss
How does depression influence aggression and self harm?
depression is associated with irritability which can cause verbal or physical aggression
May lead to physical aggression directed against the self (self harm)
What are three emotional characteristics of depression?
lowered mood
anger
lowered self-esteem
What is lowered mood?
feelings of sadness and lethargic
Individuals often describe themselves as worthless or empty
How does depression affect anger?
increasing negative emotions decrease and positive emotions
negative emotions include anger which may be directed to the self or others
What is lowered self-esteem?
The individual dislikes themself
including self loathing and hatred
What are three cognitive characteristics of depression?
Poor concentration
dwelling on the negative
absolutist thinking
how does depression affect concentration?
 difficulty sticking to a task
difficulty making decisions
what is dwelling on the negative?
biased towards focusing on negative aspects of current situations and recalling unhappy memories instead of happy memories
What is absolutist thinking?
Black and white thinking
Situation is seen as unfortunate and a disaster
what is obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD)?
A condition characterised by obsessions and compulsive behaviour
What are three behavioural characteristics of OCD?
repetitive compulsions
compulsions to reduce anxiety avoidance
What are repetitive compulsions?
actions carried out repeatedly in a ritualistic way e.g. hand washing
How do you compulsions reduce anxiety?
compulsive behaviours are performed in an attempt to manage the anxiety produced by obsessions
E.g. checking the door is locked or appliance is switched off
what is avoidance in OCD?
A way of managing OCD by avoiding situations that trigger anxiety
E.g. avoiding bins because they carry germs
can interfere with every day life
What is the cycle of OCD?
obsessive thought, anxiety, compulsive behaviour, temporary relief
what are emotional characteristics of OCD?
anxiety and distress
depression
guilt and disgust 
How does OCD create anxiety and distress?
obsessive thoughts unpleasant and frightening
The anxiety caused by compulsions can be overwhelming
How does OCD accompany depression?
Low mood and lack of enjoyment in activities
Compulsive behaviours bring temporary relief from anxiety
How does OCD cause guilt and discussed?
irrational guilt E.g. over a minor moral issue
disgust directed towards oneself or something external eg germs 
What are cognitive characteristics of OCD?
Obsessive thoughts
cognitive coping strategies
insight into excessive anxiety
What are obsessive thoughts?
Recurring intrusive thoughts e.g. being contaminated by germs/the door being unlocked meaning intruders can enter
How a cognitive coping strategies a characteristic of OCD?
individuals often adapt Cognitive coping strategies to deal with obsessions e.g. praying or meditating
can manage anxiety and allow continuation of every day tasks

How do you cognitive characteristics of OCD give an insight into excessive anxiety?
individuals with OCD are aware there obsessions and compulsions are not rational
This is necessary for diagnosis of
OCD
Individuals may have catastrophic thoughts and tend to be hypervigilant – maintain constant alertness
what approach is used to explain and treat phobias?
behavioural
what is the two process model?
proposed by Mowrer (1960) - phobias are learning by classical conditioning and maintained by operant conditioning
how does classical conditioning cause a phobia?
UCS triggers fear response (UCR) NS is associated with the UCS NS because CS producing fear (CR) eg UCS-UCR being bitten causing anxiety NS+UCS bitten by a dog (previously didn’t cause anxiety) dog becomes CS causing CR of anxiety
what was the Little Albert study?
Watson and Rayner (1920)
Albert played with a white rat and a loud noise was made by his ear
(noise UCS)
rat (NS) didn’t create fear until being paired with noise several times
albert showed fear (CR) wit the rat (CS)
Albert showed fear to other white furry objects eg santa
how does operant conditioning maintain a phobia?
negative reinforcement- individual produces behaviour that avoids something unpleasant
a person avoids a phobic stimulus reducing anxiety and reinforces the behaviour maintaining the phobia
evaluation
explaining phobias
strength : application of Two process model
once avoidance is prevented it is no longer reinforced by the reduction of anxiety
avoidance behaviour and therefore declines
shows the value of the two process approach because it identifies a means of treating phobias
Evaluation
explaining phobias
limitation: no explanation for cognitive aspects
b
Evaluation
explaining phobias
strength: evidence linking phobias do bad experiences
two process model is used to explain behaviours
there is a cognitive component of phobias-irrational beliefs
two process model doesn’t explain all symptoms of phobias
Evaluation
explaining phobias
limitation: doesn’t explain all cases of phobias
d
what is systematic desensitisation?
reduce anxiety through counter conditioning
CS is paired with relaxation (becomes the CR) (reciprocal inhibition)
what is reciprocal inhibition?
not possible to be afraid and relaxed at the same time
what is an anxiety hierarchy?
client and therapist design anxiety hierarchy – fearful stimuli arranged in order from least to most frightening
Client works through anxiety hierarchy from the bottom using relaxation techniques each time
What is flooding?
The client is exposed to an extreme form of the phobic stimulus in order to reduce anxiety
Must have informed consent – client fully prepared and know what to expect
Evaluation
treating phobias
strength: evidence of effectiveness of SD
a
Evaluation
treating phobias
strength: SD is useful for people with learning disabilities
b
Evaluation
treating phobias
strength: flooding is cost-effective
c
Evaluation
treating phobias
limitation: flooding is traumatic
d
What approach is used to explain and treat depression?
Cognitive
what is becks negative triad?
1967
suggested people are more prone to depression because of faulty information processing (have a negative self schema)
What is a negative self schema?
a self schema is a package of ideas and information developed through experience
A person with a negative self schema interpret all information about themselves a negative way
What are the three elements to the negative triad?
negative view of the world
negative view of the future
negative view of oneself
What is Ellis’s ABC model?
that depression occurs when an activating event triggers an irrational belief which produces a consequence
What is an activating event?
Depression occurs when an individual experiences negative events
What is an irrational belief?
E.g. utopianism is the belief that the world must always be fair and just
what are emotional and behavioural consequences of an irrational belief?
E.g. an individual believes they must always succeed and when they fail the consequence is depression 
Evaluation
explaining depression
strength: supporting research for Bex model
a
Evaluation
explaining depression
strength: real world application
b
evaluation
explaining depression
limitation: Beck’s model only partially explains depression
c
evaluation
explaining depression
strength: application in treating depression
d
evaluation
explaining depression
limitation: only explains reactive depression
e
evaluation
explaining depression
limitation: ethical issues
f
what is cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT)?
A method for treating mental disorders based on both cognitive and behavioural techniques
cognitive: challenge negative irrational thoughts
Behavioural: change behaviour so it’s more effective
what is Ellis’s REBT?
rational emotional behaviour therapy
ABCDE model
D=dispute (challenge) irrational beliefs
E=effect
what is empirical argument?
disputing whether there is evidence to support irrational belief
what is logical argument?
disputing whether the negative thought actually followed the facts
what is behaviour it al activation?
gradually decrease avoidance and isolation and increase engagement in activities
evaluation
treating depression
a
evaluation
treating depression
b
evaluation
treating depression
c
evaluation
treating depression
d
what are candidate genes?
specific genes that creat vulnerability for OCD
5HT2-D - implicated in the transmission of serotonin across synapse
dopamine genes are also implicated in OCD and may regulate mood
what does polygenic mean?
(OCD) is caused by several genes
Taylor (2013) - round 230 different genes involved in OCD
what does aetiologically heterogeneous mean?
one group of genes may cause OCD in one person but a different group of genes may cause it in another person
how do different genetic variations effect OCD?
different types of OCD may be a result of different genetic variations eg hoarding disorder/religious obsession
what is the effect of low serotonin levels?
neurotransmitters relay info from one neutron to another
low levels of serotonin means transmission of mood info doesn’t take place and mood is affected
what is the effect of dysfunctional/impaired areas of the brain on OCD?
frontal lobe impairment- responsible for logical thinking and decision making so impairment can cause hoarding disorder
parahippocampal gyrus dysfunction- associated with processing unpleasant emotions and functions abnormally on OCD
evaluation
explaining OCD
a
evaluation
explaining OCD
b
evaluation
explaining OCD
c
evaluation
explaining OCD
d
evaluation
explaining OCD
e
how is drug therapy used to treat OCD?
increase/decrease levels of neurotransmitters to increase/decrease their activity
OCD is associated with low levels of serotonin
drugs are used to increase serotonin
what are SSRI’s?
selective serotonin reputable inhibitors
prevent reabsorption and breakdown of serotonin in the brain
increases the levels in the synapse
compensates what is wrong with the serotonin system in OCD
typical dosage-20mg daily for 3-4 months
how is CBT used to treat OCD?
used alongside drugs like SSRI
drug reduces emotional symptoms so the client can engage more effectively with CBT
what are two alternatives to SSRI’s?
tricyclics
SNRI’s
what are tricyclics?
an older type of antidepressant
same effect on serotonin levels as SSRI but has more sever side effects
what are SNRI’s?
serotonin noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors
increase levels of serotonin and noradrenaline
evaluation
treating OCD
a
evaluation
treating OCD
b
evaluation
treating OCD
c
evaluation
treating OCD
d
