Psychology unit 1 Flashcards
aim
a statement outlining the purpose of the investigation
anecdote
an informal verbal report of an event that has been casually observed
Behaviour
any action made by a living person (or animal) that can be observed or measured
beneficence
in relation to research ethics, the commitment to maximising benefits and minimising the risks and harms involved in taking a particular position or course of action
between subjects
an experimental design in which each participant is assigned to only one group or condition and provides only one score for data analysis; also called independent groups and between groups
biased sample
a research sample that does not adequately represent the key characteristics of its population
case study
an intensive, in-depth investigation of some behaviour, event or problem of interest in a single individual, group, organisation or situation
Conclusion
in relation to research, a decision about what the results obtained from a research study mean
Confidentiality
ethical guideline for research involving the privacy, protection and security of a participant’s personal information, including results
Confounding variable
a variable other than the independent variable that has affected the results (the dependent variable) and whose effect(s) cannot be separated from that of the independent variable, thereby providing an alternative explanation(s) for the results; compare with extraneous variable
Control condition
in an experiment, the standard against which the experimental condition can be compared; involves the control group who are not exposed to the independent variable
Control group
the group in an experiment not exposed to the independent variable
Controlled experiment
an experimental investigation of the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable, whilst controlling all other variables
Controlled variable
a variable that is considered to have an effect on the dependent variable so it is held constant to remove its potential effect
Correlation
the degree of a relationship between two variables
Correlation study
a research method used to investigate the relationship between variables without any control over the setting in which the relationship occurs or any manipulation by the researcher
Correlation coefficient
a statistic used to describe the relationship between two variables
Counterbalancing
systematically changing the order of treatments or tasks for participants in a ‘balanced’ way to ‘counter’ the unwanted effects on performance of any one order
data
information collected through research; see also primary data, secondary data, quantitative data and qualitative data
debriefing
ethical guideline requiring that at the end of the experiment, the participant leaves understanding the experimental aim, results and conclusions including wellbeing checks where appropriate
Deception (in research)
when a researcher deliberately conceals the true purpose of the experiment from participants by misleading or misinforming them
dependent variable (DV)
the variable the researcher measures, after selecting the independent variable that is assumed to have an effect on the independent variable
double blind procedure
a procedure in which both the participants and the experimenter(s) interacting with them are unaware of the conditions to which the participants have been allocated; compare with single blind
ethical concept
moral or philosophical idea that focuses on the concept of what is right and wrong
ethical guideline
enforceable standards that psychologists use to guide ethical decisions in practice, research, and education
ethics
in relation to research, standards that guide researchers to identify good, desirable or acceptable behaviour
experimental condition
the condition in an experiment in which participants are exposed to the independent variable; involves the experimental group; sometimes used to mean any or all groups or conditions in an experiment, including the control group (or conditions)
experimental group
the group in an experiment exposed to the independent variable
experimenter effect
any influence on the results produced by the person carrying out the research; also called experimenter bias
external validity
the extent to which the results obtained for a study can be applied beyond the sample that generated them, specifically to individuals in a different setting and over time; compare with internal validity
extraneous variable
any variable other than the independent variable that can cause a change in the dependent variable and therefore affect the validity of the results in an unwanted way; compare with confounding variable
fixed-response question
a question that presents a number of fixed alternative answers from which participants are required to choose; also called fixed alternative question or fixed-choice question
generalisation
in research, a decision about how widely the findings of an investigation can be applied, particularly to other members of the population from which the sample was drawn
independent variable (IV)
variable that is manipulated (controlled, selected or changed) in order to test its effects on the dependent variable
informed consent
ethical guideline requiring that participants understand the nature and purpose of the experiment, including potential risks, before agreeing to participate
integrity
in relation to research ethics, the commitment to searching for knowledge and understanding, the honest reporting of all sources of information and results, whether favourable or unfavourable, in ways that permit scrutiny and contribute to public knowledge and understanding
internal validity
the extent to which an investigation actually investigated what it set out to investigate and/or claims to have investigated; compare with external validity
interview
asking questions to obtain self-report data
justice
in relation to research ethics, moral obligation to ensure that there is fair consideration of competing claims; that there is no unfair burden on a particular group from an action; and that there is fair distribution and access to the benefits of an action
measure of variability
a statistic that indicates how widely scores (or values) are distributed or scattered around the central point
median
the middle score (or mid-point) of a set of scores (or values)
mental process
generally refers to a person’s thoughts, feelings and other mental activities that cannot be directly observed; compare with behaviour
naturalistic observation
when the researcher views and records behaviour of interest in the natural, ‘real life’ environment where it would ordinarily occur
negative correlation
when two variables change in opposite directions — as one variable increases, the other variable tends to decrease (and vice versa)
non-maleficence
in relation to research ethics, avoiding the causations of harm
non-participant observation
when the researcher tries to conceal their presence so that their observations are made in entirely inconspicuous manner
objective data
information that is observable, measurable, verifiable and free from the personal bias of the researcher; compare with subjective data
observational study
collection of data by carefully watching and recording behaviour as it occurs without any intervention or manipulation of the behaviour being observed
operationalise
define how variables will be manipulated as measured in a research investigation
opinion
a point of view that is not necessarily based on verifiable evidence and can be disputed
order effect
when performance on the dependent variable is influenced by the specific order in which an experimental task is presented rather than the independent variable
placebo
a fake treatment that is like the independent variable treatment but which is actually neutral or has no known effect
placebo effect
when there is a change in a participant’s behaviour due to their belief that they are receiving some kind of experimental treatment and they respond in accordance with that belief, rather than to the effect of the independent variable
population
in relation to research, the entire group of research interest from which a sample is drawn
positive correlation
when two variables change in the same direction
primary data
information collected directly by the researcher (or through others) for their own purpose; compare with secondary data
qualitative data
non-numerical information involving the ‘qualities’ or characteristics of a participant’s experience of what is being studied
quantitative data
numerical information on the ‘quantity’ or amount of what is being studied
questionnaire
data collection tool with a written set of questions or other prompts designed to collect self-report data
random allocation
procedure used to place participants in experimental and control groups (or conditions) so that they are as likely to be in one group as the other; ensures uniform distribution of participant characteristics; also called random assignment
random sampling
sample selection technique that ensures every member of the population of research interest has a genuinely equal chance of being selected to be part of the sample; helps achieve a representative sample
reliability
the extent to which a measure produces results that are consistent, dependable and stable
repeatability
the degree to which a specific research investigation obtains similar results when it is conducted again under the same conditions on all occasions
representative sample
a sample that closely resembles the population from which it is drawn in key characteristics
reproducibility
how close the results are to each other when an investigation is replicated under changed conditions
research hypothesis
a testable prediction of the relationship between two or more variables
research method
a particular way of conducting a research study or investigation to collect accurate and reliable data on a question or problem of interest
research question
a specific inquiry which the research seeks to provide a response to
respect
in relation to research ethics, consideration of, and due regard to, the extent to which living things have an intrinsic value and/or instrumental value
sample
the subset or part of the population that is selected for a research investigation
sampling
process of selecting participants from a population of research interest; see also random sampling, stratified sampling and convenience sampling
sampling bias
occurs when some members of a population are systematically more likely to be selected in a sample than others
scatter plot
a graph that shows the scores (or other values) on two different variables measured in a correlational study
secondary data
information that was not collected directly by the current researcher but was collected at an earlier time by someone else; compare with primary data
self-report
a participant’s responses to questions presented by the researcher
single blind procedure
a procedure in which participants are unaware of (‘blind’ to) the experimental condition they are in
stratified sampling
a sampling technique involving sampling from different subgroups in the same proportions as they occur in the population of interest
subjective data
information that is based on personal opinion, interpretation, point of view or judgment; compare with objective data
systematic error
a measurement error produced by some factor that consistently favours one condition rather than another
voluntary participation
ethical guideline requiring that no coercion or pressure is put on the participant to partake in an experiment, and they freely choose to be involved
withdrawal right
ethical guideline requiring a participant being able to discontinue their involvement in an experiment at any time during or after the conclusion of an experiment
validity
the extent to which a measure accurately measures what it is supposed to be measuring; see also internal validity and external validity
variable
something in which individuals, animals or objects differ among themselves, can change in amount or kind, and is measurable
variability
the degree to which measures or values differ from one another
within subjects experiment
an experimental design in which each participant is in both the experimental and control groups or all the treatment conditions (if there is no control group)
zero correlation
no relationship between two variables
