Psychology: The Science Of The Mind

Question 1

Define the science of psychology

Answer 1

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes, encompassing not just what people do but their biological activities, feelings, perceptions, memory, reasoning, and thoughts.

Question 2

Describe behavioral neuroscientists

Answer 2

They focus on the biological basis of behavior, and experimental psychologists study the processes of sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking about the world

Question 3

Describe cognitive psychology

Answer 3

An outgrowth of experimental psychology, studies higher mental processes, including memory, knowing, thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, judging, decision making, and language.

Question 4

Describe developmental psychologists

Answer 4

They study how people grow and change throughout the life span.

Question 5

Describe personality psychologists

Answer 5

They Personality psychologists consider the consistency and change in an individual’s behavior, as well as the individual differences that distinguish one person’s behavior from another’s

Question 6

Describe health psychologists

Answer 6

Health psychologists study psychological factors that affect physical disease, while clinical psychologists consider the study, diagnosis, and treatment of abnormal behavior. Counseling psychologists focus on educational, social, and career adjustment problems. Forensic psychologists apply psychology to the criminal justice system and legal issues.

Question 7

Describe social psychology

Answer 7

Social psychology is the study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others.

Question 8

Describe cross-cultural psychology

Answer 8

Cross-cultural psychology examines the similarities and differences in psychological functioning among various cultures.

Question 9

What are some other increasingly important fields in psychology?

Answer 9

Other increasingly important fields are evolutionary psychology, behavioral genetics, and clinical neuropsychology.

Question 10

List the major specialties for working in the field of psychology

Answer 10

Psychologists are employed in a variety of settings. Although the primary sites of employment are private practice and colleges, many psychologists are found in hospitals, clinics, community mental health centers, and counseling centers.

Question 11

Who was Wilhelm Wundt?

Answer 11

Wilhelm Wundt laid the foundation of psychology in 1879, when he opened his laboratory in Germany.

Question 12

Explain the roots of psychology

Answer 12

• Wilhelm Wundt laid the foundation of psychology in 1879, when he opened his laboratory in Germany.
• Early perspectives that guided the work of psychologists were structuralism, functionalism, and gestalt theory.

Question 13

What does the neuroscience approach of psychology focus on?

Answer 13

The neuroscience approach focuses on the biological components of the behavior of people and animals.

Question 14

What does the psychodynamic perspective of psychology focus on?

Answer 14

The psychodynamic perspective suggests that powerful, unconscious inner forces and conflicts about which people have little or no awareness are the primary determinants of behavior.

Question 15

What does the behavioral perspective of psychology focus on?

Answer 15

The behavioral perspective de-emphasizes internal processes and concentrates instead on observable, measurable behavior, suggesting that understanding and control of a person’s environment are sufficient to fully explain and modify behavior.

Question 16

What does the cognitive approach of psychology focus on?

Answer 16

Cognitive approaches to behavior consider how people know, understand, and think about the world.

Question 17

What does the humanistic perspective of psychology focus on?

Answer 17

The humanistic perspective emphasizes that people are uniquely inclined toward psychological growth and higher levels of functioning and that they will strive to reach their full potential.

Question 18

Apply psychology to your life

Answer 18

Psychologists study a variety of topics related to the real world and everyday life, including ways to reduce aggression, eyewitness testimony in trials, and the way that cell phone use impairs driving.

Question 19

Summarize psychology’s key issues and controversies

Answer 19

Psychology’s key issues and controversies include nature (heredity) versus nurture (environment); conscious versus unconscious causes of behavior; observable behavior versus internal mental processes; free will versus determinism; and individual differences versus universal principles

Question 20

Define the scientific method, and list the steps involved

Answer 20

The scientific method is the approach psychologists use to understand behavior. It consists of four steps: identifying questions of interest, formulating an explanation, carrying out research that is designed to support or refute the explanation, and communicating the findings.

Question 21

Describe how psychologists use research to answer questions of interest

Answer 21

Research in psychology is guided by theories (broad explanations and predictions regarding phenomena of interest) and hypotheses (theory-based predictions stated in a way that allows them to be tested).

Question 22

How do researchers test a hypothesis?

Answer 22

To test a hypothesis, researchers must formulate an operational definition, which translates the abstract concepts of the hypothesis into the actual procedures used in the study.

Question 23

Summarize the descriptive research method used by psychologists

Answer 23

• Archival research uses existing records, such as old newspapers or other documents, to test a hypothesis. In naturalistic observation, the investigator acts mainly as an observer, making no change in a naturally occurring situation. In survey research, people are asked a series of questions about their behavior, thoughts, or attitudes. The case study is an in-depth interview and examination of one person or group.
• These descriptive research methods rely on correlational techniques, which describe associations between variables but cannot determine cause-and-effect relationships.

Question 24

Summarize the experimental research method used by psychologists

Answer 24

• In a formal experiment, the relationship between variables is investigated by deliberately producing a change—called the experimental manipulation—in one variable and observing changes in the other variable.
• In an experiment, at least two groups must be compared to assess cause-and-effect relationships. The group receiving the treatment (the special procedure devised by the experimenter) is the experimental group; the second group (which receives no treatment) is the control group. There also may be multiple experimental groups, each of which is subjected to a different procedure and then compared with the others.
• The variable that experimenters manipulate is the independent variable. The variable that they measure and expect to change as a result of manipulation of the independent variable is called the dependent variable.
• In a formal experiment, participants must be assigned randomly to treatment conditions, so that participant characteristics are distributed evenly across the different conditions.

Question 25

Explain the major ethical issues that confront psychologists conducting research

Answer 25

- One of the key ethical principles followed by psychologists is that of informed consent. Participants must be informed, before participation, about the basic outline of the experiment and the risks and potential benefits of their participation. - Ensuring that psychological findings apply to diverse populations represents another issue. Although the use of college students as participants has the advantage of easy availability, they do not necessarily represent the population as a whole.

Question 26

Discuss the issues related to the use of animals in research

Answer 26

Although the use of animals as participants may have drawbacks regarding the degree to which one can generalize the findings to humans, the benefits of using animals in research have been profound.

Question 27

Identify threats to experimental validity

Answer 27

Experiments are subject to a number of biases, or threats. Experimenter expectations can produce bias when an experimenter unintentionally transmits cues to participants about her or his expectations regarding their behavior in a given experimental condition. Participant expectations can also bias an experiment. Among the tools experimenters use to help eliminate bias are placebos and double-blind procedures.

Question 28

Explain the structure of a neuron

Answer 28

A neuron has a cell body (which contains a nucleus) with a cluster of fibers called dendrites, which receive messages from other neurons. On the opposite end of the cell body is a tubelike extension, an axon, which ends in a small bulge called a terminal button. Terminal buttons send messages to other neurons.

Question 29

Describe how neurons fire

Answer 29

Most axons are insulated by a coating called the myelin sheath. When a neuron receives a message to fire, it releases an action potential, an electrical charge that travels through the axon. Neurons operate according to an all-or-none law: either they are at rest, or an action potential is moving through them. There is no in-between state.

Question 30

Summarize how messages travel from one neuron to another

Answer 30

Once a neuron fires, nerve impulses are carried to other neurons through the production of chemical substances, neurotransmitters, that actually bridge the gaps—known as synapses—between neurons. Neurotransmitters may be either excitatory, telling other neurons to fire, or inhibitory, preventing or decreasing the likelihood of other neurons firing.

Question 31

Identify neurotransmitters

Answer 31

Neurotransmitters are an important link between the nervous system and behavior. Common neurotransmitters include the following: acetylcholine, which transmits messages relating to our muscles and is involved in memory capabilities; glutamate, which plays a role in memory; gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which moderates behaviors from eating to aggression; dopamine, which is involved in movement, attention, and learning; serotonin, which is associated with the regulation of sleep, eating, mood, and pain; and endorphins, which seem to be involved in the brain’s effort to deal with pain and elevate mood.

Question 32

Explain how the structures of the nervous system are linked together

Answer 32

- The nervous system is made up of the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system. The peripheral nervous system is made up of the somatic division, which controls voluntary movements and the communication of information to and from the sense organs, and the autonomic division, which controls involuntary functions such as those of the heart, blood vessels, and lungs. - The autonomic division of the peripheral nervous system is further subdivided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. The sympathetic division prepares the body in emergency situations, and the parasympathetic division helps the body return to its typical resting state. - Behavioral genetics examines the hereditary basis of human personality traits and behavior.

Question 33

Describe the operation of the endocrine system and how it affects behavior

Answer 33

The endocrine system secretes hormones, chemicals that regulate the functioning of the body, via the bloodstream. The pituitary gland secretes growth hormones and influences the release of hormones by other endocrine glands, and in turn is regulated by the hypothalamus.

Question 34

Illustrate how researchers identify the major parts and functions of the brain

Answer 34

Brain scans take a “snapshot” of the internal workings of the brain without having to cut surgically into a person’s skull. Major brain-scanning techniques include the electroencephalogram (EEG), positron emission tomography (PET), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), and transcranial magnetic stimulation imaging (TMS).

Question 35

Describe the central core of the brain

Answer 35

The central core of the brain is made up of the medulla (which controls functions such as breathing and heartbeat), the pons (which coordinates the muscles and the two sides of the body), the cerebellum (which controls balance), the reticular formation (which acts to heighten awareness in emergencies), the thalamus (which communicates sensory messages to and from the brain), and the hypothalamus (which maintains homeostasis, or body equilibrium, and regulates behavior related to basic survival). The functions of the central core structures are similar to those found in other vertebrates. This central core is sometimes referred to as the “old brain.” Increasing evidence also suggests that male and female brains may differ in structure in minor ways.

Question 36

Describe the limbic system of the brain

Answer 36

The limbic system, found on the border of the “old” and “new” brains, is associated with eating, aggression, reproduction, and the experiences of pleasure and pain.

Question 37

Describe the cerebral cortex of the brain

Answer 37

The cerebral cortex—the “new brain”—has areas that control voluntary movement (the motor area); the senses (the sensory area); and thinking, reasoning, speech, and memory (the association areas).

Question 38

Recognize neuroplasticity and its implications

Answer 38

Neuroplasticity refers to changes in the brain relating to the addition of new neurons, new interconnections between neurons, and the reorganization of information-processing areas.

Question 39

Explain how the two hemispheres of the brain operate interdependently and the implications for human behavior

Answer 39

- The brain is divided into left and right halves, or hemispheres, each of which generally controls the opposite side of the body. - The left hemisphere specializes in verbal tasks, such as logical reasoning, speaking, and reading. - The right side of the brain specializes in nonverbal tasks, such as spatial perception, pattern recognition, and emotional expression.

Question 40

Define absolute thresholds

Answer 40

- Sensation is the activation of the sense organs by any source of physical energy. In contrast, perception is the process by which we sort out, interpret, analyze, and integrate stimuli to which our senses are exposed. - Psychophysics studies the relationship between the physical nature of stimuli and the sensory responses they evoke. - The absolute threshold is the smallest amount of physical intensity at which a stimulus can be detected. Under ideal conditions absolute thresholds are extraordinarily sensitive, but the presence of noise (background stimuli that interfere with other stimuli) reduces detection capabilities.

Question 41

Explain the difference threshold and Weber’s law

Answer 41

The difference threshold, or just noticeable difference, is the smallest change in the level of stimulation required to sense that a change has occurred. According to Weber’s law, a just noticeable difference is a constant proportion of the intensity of an initial stimulus.

Question 42

Discuss sensory adaptation

Answer 42

Sensory adaptation occurs when we become accustomed to a constant stimulus and change our evaluation of it. Repeated exposure to a stimulus results in an apparent decline in sensitivity to it

Question 43

Explain the basic structure of the eye

Answer 43

- Vision depends on sensitivity to light that is either reflected off objects or produced by an energy source. The eye shapes the light into an image that is transformed into nerve impulses and interpreted by the brain. - As light enters the eye, it passes through the cornea, pupil, and lens and ultimately reaches the retina, where the electromagnetic energy of light is converted to nerve impulses for transmission to the brain. These impulses leave the eye via the optic nerve. - The visual information gathered by the rods and cones is transferred through the optic nerve, which leads to the optic chiasm—the point where the optic nerve splits.

Question 44

Compare and contrast color vision with color blindness

Answer 44

- Color vision seems to be based on two processes described by the trichromatic theory and the opponent-process theory. - The trichromatic theory suggests that there are three kinds of cones in the retina, each of which is responsive to a certain range of colors. The opponent-process theory presumes pairs of different types of cells in the eye that work in opposition to each other.

Question 45

Describe how we sense sound

Answer 45

- Sound, motion, and balance are centered in the ear. Sounds, in the form of vibrating airwaves, enter through the outer ear and travel through the auditory canal until they reach the eardrum. - The vibrations of the eardrum are transmitted into the middle ear, which consists of three bones: the hammer, the anvil, and the stirrup. These bones transmit vibrations to the oval window. - In the inner ear, vibrations move into the cochlea, which encloses the basilar membrane. Hair cells on the basilar membrane change the mechanical energy of sound waves into nerve impulses that are transmitted to the brain. The ear is also involved in the sense of balance and motion.

Question 46

Discuss smell and taste

Answer 46

Smell depends on olfactory cells (the receptor cells of the nose), and taste is centered in the tongue’s taste buds on the tongue and mouth.

Question 47

Distinguish the skin senses

Answer 47

- The skin senses are responsible for the experiences of touch, pressure, temperature, and pain. Gate-control theory suggests that particular nerve receptors, when activated, open a “gate” to specific areas of the brain related to pain, and that another set of receptors closes the gate when stimulated. - Among the techniques used frequently to alleviate pain are medication, hypnosis, biofeedback, relaxation techniques, surgery, nerve and brain stimulation, and cognitive therapy.

Question 48

Explain the gestalt laws of organization

Answer 48

- Perception is a constructive process in which people go beyond the stimuli that are physically present and try to construct a meaningful interpretation. - The gestalt laws of organization are used to describe the way in which we organize bits and pieces of information into meaningful wholes, known as gestalts, through closure, proximity, similarity, and simplicity.

Question 49

Identify top-down and bottom-up processing

Answer 49

In top-down processing, perception is guided by higher-level knowledge, experience, expectations, and motivations. In bottom-up processing, perception consists of the progression of recognizing and processing information from individual components of a stimuli and moving to the perception of the whole.

Question 50

Define perceptual constancy

Answer 50

Perceptual constancy permits us to perceive stimuli as unvarying in size, shape, and color despite changes in the environment or the appearance of the objects being perceived.

Question 51

Explain depth perception

Answer 51

Depth perception is the ability to perceive distance and view the world in three dimensions even though the images projected on our retinas are two-dimensional. We are able to judge depth and distance as a result of binocular disparity and monocular cues, such as motion parallax, the relative size of images on the retina, and linear perspective.

Question 52

Relate motion perception to daily life

Answer 52

Motion perception depends on cues such as the perceived movement of an object across the retina and information about how the head and eyes are moving.

Question 53

Determine the importance of perceptual illusions

Answer 53

- Visual illusions are physical stimuli that consistently produce errors in perception, causing judgments that do not reflect the physical reality of a stimulus accurately. One of the best-known illusions is the Müller-Lyer illusion. - Visual illusions are usually the result of errors in the brain’s interpretation of visual stimuli. Furthermore, culture clearly affects how we perceive the world.