Psychology Test 4 (Short Answer) Flashcards
1
Q
Name and explain the five levels of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs discussed in class. [5 marks]
A
Physiological needs: hunger, thirst, air
Safety needs: housing, money, feeling of being safe
Love or Belongingness: family, friendships, partners
Esteem: respect from peers, self-respect, strong sense of self-worth and self-efficacy
Self-Actualization: at peace with self and the world, help others, enjoy what they do
2
Q
Identify and describe the final stage of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.
[3 marks]
A
Self-actualization is the final stage. It represents a stage where all other stages are currently being fulfilled and a person is free to search for the truth of who they really are, or their authentic self. A self-actualized person enjoys genuine intrinsic liking of their actions and lifestyle and contributes to the world in a way that earns them a living, respect from others, and self-respect.
3
Q
Explain Schacter and Singer’s Two-Factor Theory of emotion. [4 marks]
A
- emotions are created by our cognitive appraisal of 1) our autonomic response to stimuli in the environment and 2) the situational cues apparent in the environment. In other words, we feel a physiological reaction and then determine what emotion we are feeling by looking to the environment for clues.
4
Q
Explain the effects of stimulation and lesioning in both the lateral and ventricular hypothalamus. [2 marks] [1/2 mark each]
A
- stimulation of the lateral region induces eating, whereas lesions produce starvation
- stimulation of the ventricular region inhibits eating, whereas lesions induce overeating
5
Q
FHow do evolutionary psychologists explain gender differences in patterns of jealousy? [2 marks]
A
- men are more jealousy if their mate has a one-time sexual encounter with a stranger than a non-sexual, long term emotional relationship with a member of the opposite sex, since only the sexual encounter is a threat to their reproductive success, whereas women show the opposite pattern since the emotional affair is more of a threat to resources than a brief sexual affair.
6
Q
How do the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin affect the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus with regards to eating behavior? [2 marks]
A
- when norepinephrine is found in the PVN an individual is more likely to increase their consumption of carbohydrates, whereas infusion of serotonin in the PVN will lead to decreased carbohydrate consumption.
7
Q
What three regions of the Hypothalamus have been strongly implicated in eating behavior? [3 marks]
A
- lateral region, ventromedial region, paraventricular nucleus (PVN)
8
Q
Describe in order the first 4 levels of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. [2 marks] [1/2 mark each]
A
physiological needs – hunger, thirst, sex
safety needs – shelter/housing, money
love or belongingness – intimacy, family support, friends
esteem – self-worth, self-efficacy, self-respect, respect from others
9
Q
Describe how Evolutionary Psychologists explain differing patterns of sexual attraction between males and females. [4 marks]
A
Women are limited in the number of offspring they can contribute genetic material to, so they look for a partner who has good resources to her few children the best possible chance of reaching the age of viability (when they can have their own children) Thus, women value wealth, power, status, intelligence, and ambition in a sexual partner.
Men are sexually attracted to indicators that suggest the female has the maximum chance of having strong healthy offspring. These universal indicators are youth (more years to procreate, younger healthier eggs) and attractiveness (indicator of healthy disease free genes) however, the only universal indicator of attraction is symmetry
10
Q
List the 6 basic emotional states discussed in class. [3 marks] [1/2 mark each]
A
Anger, fear, happiness, disgust, sadness, surprise
11
Q
Identify and describe the five stages of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs discussed in class. [5 marks]
A
- Physiological needs – air, water, food, etc… the basic biological needs to survive
- Safety needs – housing, money, etc… the basic things needed to provide shelter and a sense of safety
- love or belongingness – emotional intimacy, family support, friends, etc… developing healthy, honest, and mutually supportive relationships
- esteem – self-worth, self-efficacy, self-respect, respect from others, etc… being proud of oneself and one’s actions
- Self-actualization is the final stage. It represents a stage where all other stages are currently being fulfilled and a person is free to search for the truth of who they really are, or their authentic self.
12
Q
In neuropsychological terms, explain the dual processing of emotions. [4 marks]
A
- the thalamus receives sensory input and channels the signals to two places. 1) information is rapidly sent to the amygdala where instinctive and reflexive autonomic reactions take place and 2) the information is sent more slowly to the cortex where experience, environmental cues, and physiological reactions can all be assessed before taking action. Rapid, instinctive responding to threatening stimuli may be the difference between life and death in some circumstances, whereas reasoned, logical responses are slower, but will better take into account the next appropriate behavioral response to the situation.
13
Q
In neuropsychological terms, explain the two paths for processing emotions. [4 marks]
A
- the thalamus receives sensory input and channels the signals to two places. 1) information is rapidly sent to the amygdala where instinctive and reflexive autonomic reactions take place and 2) the information is sent more slowly to the cortex where experience, environmental cues, and physiological reactions can all be assessed before taking action. Rapid, instinctive responding to threatening stimuli may be the difference between life and death in some circumstances, whereas reasoned, logical responses are slower, but will better take into account the next appropriate behavioral response to the situation.
14
Q
What is the evolutionary explanation for gender differences in mate preferences? [4 marks]
A
- throughout evolution men have looked for women with good reproductive potential and thus have traditionally valued youthfulness (allowing for more reproductive years) and attractiveness (which is a sign of health and fertility) in their partners, whereas women have looked for mates that could provide material resources and protect the family. Thus, women traditionally place more emphasis on intelligence, income and status in mate selection.
15
Q
Identify and give an example of the 3 components of emotions. [3 marks]
A
- physiological arousal, e.g., increased heart rate, galvanic skin response, autonomic activity, etc…
- subjective experience, e.g., fear of pain, or death, or anticipation of pleasure, etc…
- behavioral expression, e.g., scream, cry, laugh, make a facial expression, etc…
16
Q
Positive emotions are related most strongly to activation of _______________ systems, whereas negative emotions are most strongly related to activation of ________________________ systems. [2 marks]
A
- dopamine, norepinephrine
17
Q
Describe in order the first 3 levels of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. [3 marks]
A
- physiological needs – hunger, thirst, sex
- safety needs – shelter/housing, money
- love or belongingness – intimacy, family support, friends
18
Q
Explain Parental Investment Theory. [3 marks]
A
- in any given species, member of the sex that makes the smaller investment in the rearing of offspring will compete for mating opportunities with the sex that makes the larger investment, and the sex that makes the larger investment will tend to be more discriminating in selecting its partners.
19
Q
In which of Kohlberg’s stages of moral development do we find right and wrong being determined by what is punished? [1 mark]
A
Preconventional Stage
20
Q
What are some of the gender differences found in patterns of sexual activity and how do evolutionary psychologists explain them? [3 marks]
A
- males generally show a greater interest in sex, initiate sex more often, have more sexual partners, and engage in more sex with partners they barely know, than women
- because males can have thousands of children, it is in their best interest for reproductive success to have as many partners as possible, whereas females are very limited in the number of children they can have, thus, they must be very selective about who they mate with.
21
Q
List 3 common methodologies used in developmental research. [3 marks]
A
cross-sectional studies, longitudinal studies, sequential studies
22
Q
List the three phases of prenatal development and their corresponding time frames. [3 marks]
A
- germinal period: 1st 2 weeks after conception
- embryonic period: 3rd to 8th weeks of gestation
- fetal period: from 9 weeks until birth
23
Q
Define the term “teratogens” and provide an example. [2 marks]
A
- teratogens are environmental agents such as viruses or chemicals that can harm a developing fetus
- e.g., alcohol can lead to Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, cocaine use can lead to motor and emotional developmental delays, smoking can lead to SIDS, premature births, stillbirths, and miscarriages, influenza may lead to schizophrenia, etc…
24
Q
In what stage of psychosexual development would we find penis envy? [1 mark]
A
-Phallic
25
In what stage of Kohlberg’s moral development would we find right and wrong determined by abstract ethical principles of equality and justice? [1 mark]
- post conventional
26
Explain and provide an example for the organizational and activational effects of androgens on developing humans. [4 marks]
- Organizational effects are permanent effects created by the presence of certain hormones during a critical period of development. E.g., High levels of androgens in the 3-month-old fetus will lead to physical and personality attributes that correspond to a masculine or male gender. In the absence of these androgens, nature’s tendency is to create a female or feminine traits.
- Activational effects: are temporary changes that occur as a result of differing levels of hormones. E.g., the low levels of testosterone in both male and female adults can lead to lowered sexual desire and increasing the levels of testosterone will often increase sexual desire.
27
Identify and explain two pieces of evidence that suggest there is a biological basis for homosexuality. [2 marks]
twin studies show that there is a much higher rate of concordance between monozygotic (identical) twins than between dyzygotic (fraternal) twins
hormonal responses to leuteinizing hormone differ between heterosexual and homosexual men, who respond closer to the way females respond
Also accept Levay’s post mortem study of the anterior hypothalamus of homosexual and heterosexual men showing this part of the brain is smaller in females and gay men
28
Explain what teratogens are and provide an example of a teratogen and its’ consequences. [3 marks]
a teratogen is any environmental agent that can harm a developing fetus in utero.
[any one example for one mark]
E.g., alcohol can cause Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, Crack cocaine can impair normal development and cause addiction, smoking leads to a greater chance of miscarriages, stillbirth, premature birth, SIDS, etc…
29
List the three stages of Kohlberg’s moral development and describe the orientations in each stage. [6 marks]
1)Preconventional – Punishment to Naïve Reward orientation
2)Conventional – Good boy/Good girl to Authority orientation
3)Post conventional – Social contract to Individual principles orientation
30
Explain the organizational effects of androgens on the developing fetus.
[2 marks]
- High levels of androgens in the 3-month-old fetus will lead to physical and personality attributes that correspond to a masculine or male gender. In the absence of these androgens, nature’s tendency is to create a female or feminine traits.
31
Explain the cross-sectional method of study and state when it is useful and when it is not useful. [3 marks]
the cross-sectional method compares groups of different ages at the same time
- it is useful for assessing age differences
- it is not useful for assessing age changes
32
Explain the concept of critical periods and provide examples. [4 marks]
- the brain is set to acquire a function during a limited period of time, if key experiences do not occur during a critical time period, the function may not develop normally or at all.
- the brain is also more vulnerable to certain teratogens (environmental stimuli) at some critical periods as opposed to other times where exposure is not as serious.
- e.g., Genie was isolated till age 13 and thus never fully developed language skills
- e.g., measles can cause mental retardation if contracted during certain fetal periods
33
Identify and define the two laws of infant motor development. [2 marks]
cephalocaudal development means infants develop from the head down
proximodistal development means infants develop from the center outward
34
In what stage of Kohlberg’s moral development do we find right and wrong being determined by what is punished? [1 mark]
Preconventional Stage
35
What are the two types of moral orientations found at Kohlberg’s conventional stage of moral development? [2 marks]
- the good boy/good girl orientation, and the authority orientation
36
List and describe the 3 phases of the prenatal developmental period for humans. [3 marks]
Germinal period: 1st 2 weeks after conception, newly fertilized egg is called a zygote
Embryonic period: 3rd to 8th weeks of gestation, embryo develops, danger of miscarriages
Fetal period: from 9 weeks to birth, fetus develops rapidly and may survive outside the womb as early as 22 weeks
37
According to Piaget, define “object permanence” and state the stage of cognitive development where it is first found. [2 marks]
- object permanence refers to the realization that an object continues to exist even if it cannot be seen
- according to Piaget it develops at the end of the sensorimotor period
38
What are Erikson’s first and last stages of personality development? [2 marks]
Trust vs. mistrust
Integrity vs. despair
39
Identify and describe Freud’s three structures of personality. [6 marks]
- Id: based on the pleasure principle, unconscious desires, wishes, and instincts
- Ego: based on the reality principle, struggles to satisfy Id and Superego and deal with the reality of the world
- Superego: based on the morality principle, keeps Id in check and tries to establish a sense of right and wrong based on society, family, and internal morals
.
40
Explain the concept of “reciprocal determinism”. [2 marks]
- internal mental events, external environmental events and overt behavior all interact and influence one another in a person’s subjective experience of the world.
41
List the Big Five factors of personality traits. [3 marks]
[1/2 mark each and ½ mark for getting all 5]
Openness to experience
Conscientiousness
Extroversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
OCEAN
42
Explain the concept of critical periods and provide an example. Remember to address both positive and negative outcomes. [4 marks]
- the brain is set to acquire a function during a limited period of time, if key experiences do not occur during a critical time period, the function may not develop normally or at all.
- the brain is also more vulnerable to certain teratogens (environmental stimuli) at some critical periods as opposed to other times where exposure is not as serious.
- e.g., Genie was isolated till age 13 and thus never fully developed language skills
- e.g., measles can cause mental retardation if contracted during certain fetal periods
43
List the 3 types of infant-caregiver attachment discussed in the lectures. [3 marks]
- 1) secure 2) anxious-ambivalent 3) avoidant
44
According to Piaget, define “conservation” and state the stage of cognitive development where children learn this ability. [2 marks]
- Conservation is the understanding that the basic properties of an object are constant even if the object changes shape
- Piaget believed that children mastered conservation in the concrete operational period
45
Explain Piaget’s concepts of assimilation and accommodation. [2 marks]
- Assimilation involves interpreting new information in light of an old or existing schema
- Accomodation is the process by which old schemas are modified to fit new situations and information
46
What is Erikson’s seventh stage of personality development? [1 mark]
- generativity vs. self-absorbtion
47
According to Ellis’ Rational Emotive Therapy, list three positive and five negative emotions that would be considered inappropriate. [4 marks]
Positive: grandiosity, rage, mania
Negative: depression, anxiety, despair, self-pity, feelings of worthlessness
48
List Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development and their corresponding time frames. [4 marks]
i) sensorimotor period (birth to 2 years)
ii) preoperational period (2 to 7 years)
iii) concrete operational period (7 to 11)
iv) formal operational period (11 to adult)
49
What are Erikson’s first two stages of personality development? [2 mark]
- trust vs. mistrust
- autonomy vs. shame and doubt
50
Define and provide an example for the following defense mechanisms: Projection and Displacement. [2 marks]
- Projection is attributing your own unacceptable impulses to others e.g., you believe that your friend is mad at you when really it is you who are mad at your friend
- Displacement: diverting emotional reactions from their original source to a substitute target e.g., a man who is mad at his boss comes home and yells at his wife
51
Briefly explain Bandura’s Social Learning theory. [3 marks]
- Observational or vicarious learning occurs by merely observing what others do (others are the models) and what the consequences are of those observed actions. There are two important processes, the first being acquisition which merely requires observing a behavior and its consequences and the second is acceptance or performance where the person actually performs the observed behavior
52
According to Ellis’ Rational Emotive Therapy, what are the two fundamental goals of all human beings who are acting rationally? [2 marks]
- to stay alive and to try and be happy or satisfied
53
According to the Trait approach to personality, what are the two main assumptions about traits? [2 marks]
i) traits are stable over time
ii) traits are stable across situations
54
According to Freud, what two drives are the motivating forces for human behavior? [2 marks]
- aggressive and sexual drives
55
List and describe the Big Five factors of personality traits. [5 marks]
1. Openness – imaginative, novelty seeking, and independent vs. realistic, routine seeking, and conforming
2. Conscientiousness – organized, careful, and self-disciplined vs. disorganized, careless, and weak willed
3. Extraversion – sociable, fun-loving, and affectionate vs. retiring, sober, and reserved
4. Agreeableness – softhearted, trusting, and helpful vs. ruthless, suspicious, and uncooperative
5. Neuroticism – worried, insecure, and self-pitying vs. calm, secure, and self-satisfied
56
According to Eysenck, what are the three main traits of personality? [3 marks]
extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism
57
What is Erikson’s second stage of personality development? [1 mark]
- autonomy vs. shame and doubt
58
List the names and corresponding ages for Freud’s 5 stages of psychosexual development. [5 marks]
Oral stage: 0-18 months
Anal stage: 2-3 years
Phallic stage: 4-6 years
Latency: 7-11 years
Genital stage: 12+ years
59
According to Rational Emotive Therapy, what does it mean to act “irrationally”? [2 marks]
RET assumes all humans share the fundamental goals to stay alive and to be satisfied.
When people think, feel, and behave in ways that interfere with these goals, they are acting irrationally
60
List one contribution and two limitations of the Humanistic Personality theory discussed in class. [3 marks]
*Contributions
–Focus on how humans strive to determine the meaning of life
*Limitations
–Humanistic approach is not a complete theoretical account of personality
–The approach has not generated a body of testable hypotheses and research
61
Define and provide an example for the following defense mechanisms: Projection, Reaction Formation, and Displacement. [3 marks]
- Projection is attributing your own unacceptable impulses to others e.g., you believe that your friend is mad at you when really it is you who are mad at your friend
Reaction Formation: a person converts an unacceptable impulse into the opposite impulse e.g., a person attracted to the same sex may express open hostility to homosexuals
- Displacement: diverting emotional reactions from their original source to a substitute target e.g., a man who is mad at his boss comes home and yells at his wife
62
According to Ellis’ Rational Emotive Therapy, list four positive and four negative emotions that would be considered appropriate. [4 marks]
[1/2 mark each]
Positive: pleasure, joy, love, social interest]
Negative: sorrow, regret, frustration, displeasure
63
What are Erikson’s third and seventh stages of personality development? [2 marks]
- initiative vs. guilt
- generativity vs. self-absorbtion
64
According to Rogers’ Person-Centered approach to personality, identify and describe the three types of “selves” that humans possess. [3 marks]
1) True-self: the core aspect of who we really are
2) False-self: the self that is shown to others and created by distortions from interpersonal experiences
3) Ideal-self: what the person would like to be
65
According to Piaget, define “object permanence” and state the earliest stage of cognitive development where it can be found. [2 marks]
- object permanence refers to the realization that an object continues to exist even if it cannot be seen
- according to Piaget it develops at the end of the sensorimotor period
66
Define "egocentrism" according to Piaget, and state what stage of cognitive development is marked by it.
- Egocentrism refers to a cognitive view in which children understand the world to have only their view and they have difficulty understanding the views of others
- according to Piaget this is found in the preoperational period
67
What is Erikson’s seventh stage of personality development? [1 mark]
generativity vs. self-absorbtion
68
List the name and age for Piaget’s 4 stages of cognitive development and describe the important aspect of cognition for each stage. [4 marks]
1)Senorimotor period (birth to 2 years) – develop object permanence
2)Preoperational period (2 to 7 years) – lack of conservation ability
3)Concrete operational period (7 to 11) – master conservation, loss of egotism
4)Formal operational period (11 to adult) - master abstract thinking
