Psychology of Learning

Question 1

What is learning

Answer 1

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience.

Question 2

What is classical conditioning and its purpose

Answer 2

it is a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired. It is when people associate two or more things together and anticipate a particular outcome through a series of stimuli that allows for behaviour and responses to be categorised.

Question 3

What is the process of classical conditioning

Answer 3

Before Conditioning:
the neutral stimulus is presented by its self and produces no response and the unconditioned stimulus is presented and produces a unconditioned response.
Then acquisition phase
- the NS is pared with the UCS closely in time to produce a UCR
Then performance phase
- the NS becomes the conditioned stimulus as the UCS is no longer required to be present to elicited the UCR. Thus the response is now conditioned.

Question 4

describe the the relationship between the unconditioned stimuli, conditioned stimuli, unconditioned responses and conditioned responses.

Answer 4

NS - does not issue a response
UCS - stimulus that automatically gives a reaction
CS - what is taught to associate with stimulus
UCR - a natural response to the unconditioned stimulus
CR - a learned response
Relationship: The unconditioned stimulus naturally triggers an unconditioned response. When a neutral stimulus (conditioned stimulus) is paired with the unconditioned stimulus, it becomes associated with it, eventually leading to a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is presented alone.

Question 5

How can the principles of classical conditioning be demonstrated by Pavlov’s experiment

Answer 5

Pavlov’s experiment demonstrated classical conditioning through the following steps:

Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Food naturally triggers salivation (unconditioned response or UR).
Neutral Stimulus (NS): A bell initially has no effect on salivation.
Pairing: Pavlov rang the bell (NS) just before presenting food (US) multiple times.
Conditioned Response (CR): Eventually, the bell alone (now a conditioned stimulus or CS) triggered salivation (conditioned response or CR), showing that a neutral stimulus can become associated with a response through conditioning.

Question 6

what is the acquisition phase

Answer 6

is the overall process during which the organism learns to associate two events, the unconditioned stimulus is learned to be associated with the conditioned stimulus.
- it is said to occur when the conditioned stimulus alone produces the conditioned response

Question 7

what is the performance phase

Answer 7

It is when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer required for the conditioned response to occur

Question 8

what is contiguity

Answer 8

the timing of the stimulus being presented in order for the conditioning to occur

Question 9

How does contiguity influence classical conditioning

Answer 9

if the time between the NS and UCS are presented together is not close together then the conditioning will not occur as the individual will not be able to associate the two events with another

Question 10

What is contingency

Answer 10

It is the relationship between the stimulus and expectation that comes with the other - expectation that the CS will follow

Question 11

How does contingency influence classical conditioning

Answer 11

Contingency in classical conditioning refers to the relationship between the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (US), particularly how reliably the CS predicts the US. it influences classical conditioning through:
Predictability: For effective conditioning, the CS must consistently precede the US. If the CS reliably predicts the occurrence of the US, the association between them strengthens.
Strength of Association: Higher contingency (more reliable pairing of CS and US) leads to a stronger conditioned response. If the CS is followed by the US most of the time, the subject learns to associate the two more effectively.
Extinction: If the CS is repeatedly presented without the US, the conditioned response diminishes. High contingency helps maintain the strength of the learned response.

Question 12

What is stimulus generalisation

Answer 12

it is the spread of effects of conditioning to a stimuli that differ in certain aspects from the stimulus present during original conditioning - if the response is similar to the presence of the original stimulus, generalisation has occurred.

Question 13

What is stimulus discrimination

Answer 13

it is the ability to distinguish among different stimuli and to respond differently to them.

Question 14

what is extinction

Answer 14

this is where the pairing of the stimulus events are discontinued, the decline is gradual and relative to the magnitude of the conditioned response. It can occur by either presenting the conditioned stimulus alone or by presenting the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus independent of one another.

Question 15

what is preparedness

Answer 15

the form of associations between stimuli that threaten survival

Question 16

how are taste aversions and phobias easily learned through preparedness

Answer 16

taste aversions and phobias are easily learned through preparedness because of our innate predisposition to form strong associations with potentially harmful experiences, facilitating rapid learning that enhances survival.

Question 17

what is systematic desensitisation

Answer 17

a form of behaviour therapy in which counterconditioning is used to reduce anxiety associated with a particular stimulus

Question 18

what is the process of systematic desensitisation

Answer 18

• The client is trained in deep muscle relation
• Various anxiety provoking situations related to the particular problem are listed in order from weakest to strongest
• Each of these situation is presented in imagination or in reality, beginning with the weakest whilst the client practices muscle relation

Question 19

What is operant conditioning and its purpose

Answer 19

it is a learning process in which the strength of a behaviour is modified by the consequences following the behaviour. it is only concerned with observable stimulus-response behaviours.

Question 20

What is the process of operant conditioning

Answer 20

Operant conditioning is a learning process where behavior is modified through reinforcement or punishment. Here’s how it works:

Behavior: An individual performs a specific behavior or action.

Consequences: After the behavior, there are consequences that can either reinforce or punish the behavior.

Reinforcement: Any outcome that increases the likelihood of the behavior being repeated. Reinforcements can be:
Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus (e.g., giving a treat for good behavior).
Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus (e.g., stopping a loud noise when a task is completed).
Punishment: Any outcome that decreases the likelihood of the behavior being repeated. Punishments can be:
Aversive punishment : Adding an unpleasant stimulus (e.g., scolding for bad behavior).
response cost: Removing a pleasant stimulus (e.g., taking away privileges).
Learning: Over time, the individual learns to associate the behavior with its consequences. If reinforcement is consistently applied, the behavior is likely to increase. If punishment is consistently applied, the behavior is likely to decrease.

Extinction: If the reinforcement or punishment is removed or becomes inconsistent, the learned behavior may diminish over time.

Question 21

what is reinforcement and its purpose

Answer 21

it is adding pleasant stimuli or removing unpleasant stimuli to encourage a behaviour to happen again

Question 22

what is punishment and its purpose

Answer 22

adding unpleasant stimuli or removing pleasant stimuli to prevent a behaviour from happening again.

Question 23

what is negative reinforcement

Answer 23

the removal of an aversive stimulus as a consequence of a response, which will increase the probability of that response.

Question 24

what is positive reinforcement

Answer 24

adding something positive you are positively reinforcing that behaviour/ the procedure of presenting a positive reinforce after a response.

Question 25

what is aversive punishment

Answer 25

occurs when aversive or unpleasant stimuli is given or applied after an undesired behaviour takes place/occurs, with the aim of making the behaviour decrease

Question 26

what is response cost

Answer 26

occurs when a positive stimuli is removed after an undesired behaviour takes place, with the aim of making the behaviour decrease.

Question 27

why is reinforcement more effective in modifying behaviour than punishment

Answer 27

reinforcement is more effective as it teaches correct behaviour, makes the individual feel loved/appreciated, helps develop self-esteem and increases motivation to do the correct behaviour again in the future, where punishment can involve feelings of resentment, frustration, aggression and helplessness to be developed in some punished frequently, punished behaviour is not forgotten, thus it is supressed an may return when the punishment or threat of punishment is no longer present and it can create fear of people in authority.

Question 28

how is operant conditioning influenced by contiguity

Answer 28

the time in which the reinforcement/punishment is important as they must be linked closely together in time to allow for association between the behaviour and consequence

Question 29

how is operant conditioning influenced by contingency

Answer 29

refers to the relationship between a response and a reinforce or a response and the punisher being dependent on each other.

Question 30

what is fixed interval, variable interval, fixed ration and variable ratio

Answer 30

Fixed interval - reinforcement is delivered at predictable time intervals
Variable interval - reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals
Fixed Ratio - reinforcement is delivered after a predicable number of responses
Variable ratio - reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses.

Question 31

how do the different schedules of reinforcement affect the effectiveness of learning through the process of operant conditioning

Answer 31

reinforcement can either be continuous or partial. Continuous reinforcement is when reinforcement is given after each and every demonstration or performance of the desired behaviour and is effective as it allows for learning to happen quickly. Where, partial reinforcement occurs only when some of the desired behaviours are reinforced either through interval schedules or ratio schedules although is less effective as it involves a slower learning of desired behaviour.

Question 32

how do the different schedules of reinforcement affect the effectiveness of learning through the process of extinction

Answer 32

Continuous reinforcement affects the effectiveness of the learning through the process of extinction as if reinforcement stopped then the desired behaviour will slow down until it is eventually extinct. Where partial reinforcement is more resistant to extinction as the desired behaviour is not learned to be consistently reinforced

Question 33

how do the different schedules of reinforcement affect the effectiveness of learning through the process of performance

Answer 33

Different schedules of reinforcement can significantly affect the effectiveness of learning in operant conditioning. Here are the main types of reinforcement schedules and their impacts:

Continuous Reinforcement:

Description: The behavior is reinforced every time it occurs.
Effectiveness: This schedule is effective for establishing new behaviors quickly since the immediate reinforcement encourages the behavior. However, it can lead to rapid extinction if reinforcement is removed.
Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement: Reinforcement is provided only some of the time. This schedule is categorized into several types:

Fixed-Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement is given after a specific number of responses (e.g., a reward after every 5 purchases).
Effectiveness: Produces a high rate of response, as individuals work towards the next reward.
Variable-Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement is provided after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., slot machines).
Effectiveness: Leads to high response rates and is very resistant to extinction, as individuals keep trying for the reward without knowing when it will come.
Fixed-Interval Schedule: Reinforcement is given after a fixed amount of time (e.g., a paycheck every two weeks).
Effectiveness: Leads to a “scalloped” response pattern, where individuals increase their behavior as the time for reinforcement approaches.
Variable-Interval Schedule: Reinforcement is provided after varying amounts of time (e.g., checking for a text message).
Effectiveness: Produces a moderate, steady rate of response and is also resistant to extinction, as the timing of reinforcement is unpredictable.
Effects on Learning and Performance:

Acquisition Speed: Continuous reinforcement leads to quicker acquisition of a behavior, while intermittent reinforcement takes longer but may result in more durable learning.
Persistence: Behaviors reinforced on a variable-ratio or variable-interval schedule tend to persist longer, as individuals are less likely to give up when the reinforcement is unpredictable.
Response Patterns: Different schedules create different response patterns, influencing how often and when the behavior is performed.
In summary, the choice of reinforcement schedule can affect the speed of learning, the persistence of the behavior, and the overall effectiveness of the learning process.

Question 34

how can operant conditioning be used to shape complex behaviour

Answer 34

through behaviour modification which is a set of therapies/techniques based on operant condition theory by rewarding small improvements to reinforce desired behaviour.

Question 35

what is the placebo effect

Answer 35

when ones physical or mental health appears to improve after taking a treatment that is a designed to have no therapeutic benefit.

Question 36

how is the placebo effect induced through operant conditioning

Answer 36

the placebo effect can be induced through operant conditioning by reinforcing expectations of benefit, creating conditioned responses based on prior experiences, and utilizing contextual cues to shape behaviors and beliefs about treatment efficacy.

Question 37

what are the multiple steps, by albert bandura, involved in explaining observational learning is a cognitive process

Answer 37

there are 4 steps considered a cognitive component of this form of leaHWrning these include attention, retention, reproduction and motivation.
Attention - refers to when the individual notices something in the environment
Retention - refers to when the individual remembers what was noticed
Reproduction - refers to when the individual produces an action that is a copy of what was noticed at attention step.
Motivation - refers to when the environment delivers a consequence that changes the probability the behaviour to be produced again

Question 38

what is observational learning

Answer 38

it is a type of learning that happens indirectly through a process of watching others and imitating their behaviour

Question 39

how does observational learning differ from operant conditioning

Answer 39

Observational learning and operant conditioning are both forms of learning but differ fundamentally in their processes. Observational learning occurs when an individual learns by watching others and imitating their behaviors, often without direct reinforcement or punishment. This type of learning emphasizes the role of modeling and social influence, as seen in Albert Bandura’s experiments with the Bobo doll, where children imitated aggressive behavior observed in adults. In contrast, operant conditioning involves learning through the consequences of one’s own behavior, where actions are strengthened or weakened by reinforcement or punishment. While observational learning relies on external models and social contexts, operant conditioning focuses on the individual’s direct experiences and the results of their actions.

Question 40

how do the characteristics of the role model have impact on the process of observational learning

Answer 40

There are unique ways people learn and there are also personal differences in the way they learn. Thus, due to uniqueness of individuals they all learn at different rates and have strengths and weakness in different areas of learning.

Question 41

what are the advantages of using behavioural counts in research

Answer 41

• used to gather data on behaviours observed by researchers with inter-rater reliability shown to be very high
• Allows for objective quantitative data to be collected reducing observer errors

Question 42

what are mirror neurons

Answer 42

a type of cell in the brain of certain animals and humans that respond in the same way to a given action whether the animal performs the action itself or see another animal perform the action.

Question 43

how do the characteristics of the learner influence the process of learning

Question 44

what is cognitive behavioural therapy and how can it be modified to meet individual needs

Answer 44

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is a structured, time-limited psychotherapeutic approach that focuses on identifying and changing negative thought patterns and behaviors. It operates on the premise that our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are interconnected, and that altering negative thinking can lead to changes in feelings and behaviors, ultimately improving mental health and well-being.

Modifying CBT to Meet Individual Needs:
Personalized Goals:

Therapists work with individuals to set specific, realistic goals tailored to their unique circumstances and challenges, ensuring the therapy addresses their personal issues.
Cultural Considerations:

CBT can be adapted to consider cultural backgrounds, beliefs, and values. This involves integrating culturally relevant examples and practices to make therapy more relatable and effective.
Flexibility in Techniques:

Different CBT techniques (like cognitive restructuring, exposure therapy, or mindfulness) can be emphasized based on the individual’s needs, preferences, and specific disorders.
Pacing:

The speed of therapy can be adjusted to match the individual’s comfort level and readiness for change. Some may benefit from a slower pace to process emotions and thoughts more deeply.
Incorporating Other Modalities:

CBT can be combined with other therapeutic approaches, such as mindfulness-based therapies, acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT), or dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), to better suit individual needs.
Skills Training:

Additional skills training (like social skills, assertiveness training, or relaxation techniques) can be integrated into CBT to help individuals develop coping mechanisms tailored to their specific situations.
Ongoing Assessment:

Continuous feedback and assessment allow therapists to adjust the treatment plan as needed, ensuring it remains aligned with the individual’s progress and evolving needs.

Question 45

what is spontaneous recovery

Answer 45

• The reappearance of a conditioned response, following either operant or classical conditioning after it has been experimentally extinguished

Question 46

What is vicarious reinforcement

Answer 46

If a model is reinforced for their behaviour you will be more likely to reproduce this behaviour

Question 47

What is vicarious punishment

Answer 47

If a model if punished for their behaviour, you are less likely to reproduce the behaviour