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Social Science Series > Psychology of Child Develoment and Ageing > Flashcards

Psychology of Child Develoment and Ageing Flashcards

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1
Q

What is development?
Describe Child development?

A

Development is multifaceted and includes the development of the following skills:
Motor
Perceptual
Language
Cognitive
Social
Defining development is complex: No objective measures Child development is sequential, irreversible, and goal directed.

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2
Q

What are biological factors that influence development?

A
  • Genetics
  • Prenatal
    health status of mother and health related behaviours
  • Neonatal
  • Birth complications
  • Childhood illness
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3
Q

What are social/environmental factors that influence development?

A
  • Pollution
  • Access to environments that prompt development
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4
Q

What is the development difference in twins?
What does this indicate?

A

Monozygotic twins: 100% genetic
Dizygotic twins: ~ 50% genetic overlap

If a particular illness or condition is influenced by genetics then it should co-occur more frequently in MZ twins compared with DZ twins.
Most powerful evidence from MZ twins separated and raised apart

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5
Q

What are critical stages in development?

A

Defined periods where appropriate stimulation is required to ensure development.
Have two main features:
* Limited time window
* Learning hard to reverse
E.g. - Development of language skills
E.g. - Development of emotional attachments
How critical? Evidence of plasticity.

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6
Q

What are the stages of child development?

A

Infancy (0-2) - attachment, maturation of sensory, perceptual & motor functions & understand objects through senses

Early childhood (2-6) - locomotion, fantasy play, language development, sex role identification & group play

Middle childhood (6-12) - friendship, skill learning, self-evaluation, team play, understand cause & effect & conservation

Adolescence (12-18) - physical maturation, emotional development, peer group & sexual relationships, understand abstract thinking.

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7
Q

What occurs in development in a new-born?

A
  • Nerve cells present but in an undeveloped state
  • Growth and development occurs in an experience dependent way
    Perceptual/Motor development - initially limited repertoire but rapid and orderly development - pre -programmed inborn bias
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8
Q

What is the development of perceptual in babies?

A

perceptual - relating to the ability to interpret or become aware of something through the senses.
Babies are able to fixate their gaze - focus on areas of contrast
Evidence of active not passive – information seeking
Babies demonstrate a preference for faces ~ 4- 5 months
Move on to scanning the environment
Develop appropriate selective attention ~ 6 years – learn which environmental cues warrant perceptual attention

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9
Q

What are the 5 stages of language development?

A
  1. Preverbal communication
  2. Phonological development (language)
  3. Semantic development (language or logic)
  4. Syntax and grammar development
  5. Pragmatics development
    e.g. turn taking, use of non-verbal communication skills e.g. eye contact.
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10
Q

What is the development of new words in babies?

A

Age 9-13 months: First words
Age 12-18 months: children are learning about three new words a month
Age 18 month: infants know about 22 words
“Naming explosion”: 10-20 words per week
Age 6: Vocabulary 10 000 words, five new words a day

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11
Q

4 Main stages of discoveries of sequential discoveries?

A

Sensorimotor (0 – 2 years)
Preoperational (2-6/7 years)
Concrete operations (6/7 – 11/12 years)
Formal operations (11/12 years +)

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12
Q

What are the 4 key concepts of developing cognitive skills?

A

Scheme/Schema - internal cognitive structure which provides procedure to use in specific circumstances

Assimilation - process of using schema to make sense of event or experience

Accommodation - changing schema as result of new information

Equilibration- process of balancing assimilation & accommodation to create schemes that fit environment

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13
Q

What is the first stage?

A

Stage 1: Sensorimotor (0 – 2 years)

  • Initial reflexes via sensory motor schema.
  • Child interacts with environment and manipulates objects.
  • Understanding of object permanence (e.g. objects remain when out of sight)
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14
Q

What is the second stage?

A

Preoperational (2-6/7 years)

  • Internal representation of concrete objects and situations.
  • Child uses symbolic schemes like language
  • Ego centric
  • Reasoning dominated by perception
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15
Q

What is the third stage?

A

Concrete operations (6/7 – 11/12 years)

  • Reasoning involves more than one salient feature (conservation)
  • Logical reasoning can only be applied to objects that are real or can be seen (e.g. concrete).
  • No longer egocentric – can see other perspectives
  • Understand principles of conservation
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16
Q

What is stage 4

A

Formal operations (11/12 years +)
* Can think logically about potential events or abstract ideas
* Can test hypotheses about hypothetical events

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17
Q

What are children’s understanding of illness?

A

Children’s understanding of illness:
* Age (stage of cognitive development)
* Experience of illness (e.g. children with cancer have > understanding)
* Communication with children - Modelling the process

18
Q

What is development of children socially?

A
  • Early social responsiveness e.g. smiling non-specific
  • Specificity towards main carers
  • About 8 months develop separation anxiety and fear of stranger
  • 10 months – social referencing
  • Attachment: 6 months – 2 years Critical period
19
Q

What is attachment?
Describe the attachment aspect of social development?

A

Attachment = process of proximity seeking to identified attachment figure in situations of distress or alarm for purpose of survival
Brain begins by developing areas needed for survival
Attachment to carer - basic necessity for survival, along with food and water

20
Q

How does secure attachment take place in a childs development?

A
  • Emotional availability and contingent responsiveness from primary caregiver
  • Carer – available, sensitive and responsive
  • Provides safe and secure base from which infant can explore world
  • Secure attachment paves way for healthy development and good relationships
21
Q

What are the different types of attachment?

A
22
Q

Benefits of social attachment?

A

Secure attachment allows a child to learn:
* they are worthy of love
* others are available in times of need

Secure attachment associated with:
* Better peer relations
* Improved self-reliance
* Improved cognitive function
* Improved physical health outcomes

23
Q

What is Primary ageing?

A

Primary ageing – changes that can all expect – largely biologically determined and intrinsic to ageing process e.g., speed of information processing, wrinkles, grey hair, impairment in vision, decreased mobility,

24
Q

What are secondary ageing?

A

Secondary ageing– changes influenced by behaviour (e.g. injury & other health/lifestyle factors)
* Illness associated with behaviour and age (e.g., CHD, cancer)
* Great individual variability rather than universal decline.
* Impact of ageing on physical health is highly variable.

25
Q

How does age affect cognitive function?

A
  • Speed of processing is primary cognitive change related to ageing.
  • Reduction of brain weight & loss of grey matter
  • Loss of dendritic density & slower synaptic speed - slower reaction time
    Slowing reaction time is due to increased decision-making time
    Shortest route lost - so plasticity decreases and decision time increases
  • Attention - reductions in selectivity & integration
  • Memory – short-term memory loss common in encoding and retrieval
26
Q

How can we protect cognitive function with age?

A
  • Intellectual abilities do not show significant decline until late 70s.
    Higher levels of education - significantly less atrophy of the cerebral cortex.
    **Education & new learning ** - protective
27
Q

What habits can promote longetivity with age?

A

Healthy habits that predict longevity don’t change with age

Most crucial variable = physical exercise

  • Even over the age of 80, exercise leads to motor skill improvement & muscular strength
  • Exercise helps maintain higher levels of cognitive performance
    Improved lifestyle and exercise could prevent many of the declines that occur in ageing
28
Q

What are the limitations of activity?
What is ADL?
What is IADL?

A

Disability – limitation in individual’s ability to perform certain tasks
ADL – activities of daily living
Bathing, dressing, using the toilet
IADL – instrumental activities of daily living
Intellectually demanding tasks e.g., managing money

Disabilities rise with age
1/2 over 85s have some disabilities with ADL
Healthiest elders tend to survive past 85

29
Q

How is happiness related to age?

A

Majority of older adults – don’t have illnesses which seriously impair ADL or IADL
Maintain optimistic view of themselves & their lives
Physical declines don’t decrease satisfaction with their lives – happiest age = 74!
Majority of older adults regard their health as good

30
Q

What affects the physical and mental health of older people?

A

Poor health = single most important factor in physical & mental status after 65
But can face series of psychological stressors but majority have relatively high levels of psychological well-being.
Loss of status related to retirement
Bereavement
Financial loss
Chronic illness
Social isolation

31
Q

What are the components of healthy ageing?

A

Disengagement not normal, necessary, or desirable for majority of older adults

3 components to successful ageing:
1. good physical health
2. retention of cognitive abilities
3. continuing engagement in activities

  • SOCIAL SUPPORT: giving and receiving social support
  • PRODUCTIVE ACTIVITY: has value to self and society
  • Views old age in terms of variability rather than universal decline
  • Continuum and dynamic

Ultimate objective of successful ageing paradigm is to improve quality of life among older adults & improve services for them

32
Q

What is the affect of a fall on a elderly person?

A

Loss of self confidence and fear of falling following a fall
Slow walking speed, poor balance, low activity levels, muscle weakness and lean body mass and frailty
=
Increased fall risk
Increased risk hospitalisation
Increased risk of care home admission

33
Q

How are falls prevented?

A

Fear of falling exceeds actual risk

Treatment options: Cognitive behavioural therapy

Person – exercise training, strength & confidence building; medication review; improving vision etc

Environment – removing hazards in home; non-slip bathmats; grab bars/handrails etc.

34
Q

What is the link between depression and elderly?

A

Depression 65 +,is associated with disability, increased mortality, and poorer outcomes from physical illness.
Depressed women outnumber men 2 to 1
* Women respond to accumulation of everyday stressors
* Men respond to traumatic events – suicide

35
Q

What are the stages of dementia?

A

Mild: retains judgement but effects on memory, work & social activities.
signs = repetitive conversation & tests e.g. clock face

Moderate: independent living becomes difficult - some supervision with IADL & ADL’s required – Mini Mental State Examination & word lists

Severe: severe impairment in all ADL’s & needs constant supervision

36
Q

What are the risk factors of depression?

A

Other stressors:
* Inadequate social support
* Inadequate income
* Emotional loss of significant others
* Nagging health concerns
* Carer burden
* Financial worries - Living in poverty puts elderly at high risk

36
Q

What are the practical responsibilites of a career?
What are some of the carer stresses?

A

Practical help – financial, respite, continence equipment, laundry service etc
Carer stress: (e.g., Kiecolt-Glaser et al, 1996)
* Fatigue/sleep deprivation
* Financial burden
* Fear of future
* Reduced immunity
* poorer physical health

Greater proneness to physical & mental health problems
Main reason for older adult entering care home

37
Q

What is it important to aware of when working with older adults?

A
  • Be aware of own prejudices about old people & ageing – negative stereotypes more often applied to women than men
  • Be aware of significant variance related to ageing and avoid assumptions based on age.
  • Ageism in health care = negative expectations e.g., adherence & less access to treatment
  • Show interest & respect for person’s past
  • Recognise & acknowledge current progress & achievements
  • Set achievable goals in consultation with older person
38
Q

What are the risk factors to abuse in older adults?

A

Risk factors:
* mental illness or alcoholism in abuser
* financial dependency on victim
* social isolation & external stresses

39
Q

What are the red flags in detecting abuse?

A
  • Watch for ‘red flags’: missed appointments, doctor hopping, unexplained delays in seeking treatment, unexplained or repeated injuries
  • Always talk to the client alone
  • Assess the client for depression, anxiety, withdrawal or confusion
  • Ask the client directly about mistreatment
  • Assess the quality of carer-client interaction
  • Ask the carer if they are experiencing any difficulties providing care
  • Assess the social support system

Social Science Series (8 decks)

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