Psychology MidTerm (Chapter 5 + 6) Flashcards
Definition of Learning
The acquisition of knowledge, behaviors, or skills through experience, study, or by being taught.
Definition of Conditioning
Process of learning associations
between environmental events and behavioral responses.
Who is Ivan Pavlov
Russian physiologist who coined Classical Conditioning as well as worked on physiology of digestion, specifically in dogs
What is Classical Conditioning
Form of learning where a neutral stimulus becomes capable of eliciting a response that was originally triggered by another stimulus.
Example: It’s like when you hear a bell and immediately think of food and salivate, a response triggered originally by food alone, because you’ve learned that the bell means food is coming.
Who coined Classical Conditioning
Physiologist: Ivan Pavlov
What is another name for Classical Conditioning
Pavlovian Conditioning + Respondent Conditioning
Which physiologist was known for his research on Dogs’ Digestion
Ivan Pavlov
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS):
Natural stimulus that
reflexively elicits a response without the need for prior learning
“The Thing that Already Gets a Response Naturally”
Unconditioned response (UCR):
Unlearned, reflexive
response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus
“The Response that Naturally comes as a reaction to the Natural stimulus”.
“The Response we want to get from the New Stimulus after Training”
Conditioned stimulus (CS):
Formerly neutral stimulus
that acquires the capacity to elicit a reflexive response
“A New stimulus that starts to get the response that the Natural Stimulus creates, after training”
Conditioned response (CR):
Learned, reflexive response
to a conditioned stimulus
“The same Natural response but now created from the New Stimulus as well”
What is Stimulus Generalization
– The occurrence of a learned response not only to the original
stimulus but to other, similar stimuli as well
“When a Learned Response starts activated to other similar ‘Unintended’ Stimuli”
What is Stimulus Discrimination
The occurrence of a learned response to a specific stimulus but not
to other, similar stimuli
“When a Learned Response only activates for a specific stimulus”
What is Higher Order Conditioning
“When you use a New Stimulus to get a Natural Stimulus Response, and then take a 2nd New Stimulus to get the New Stimulus Response that was obtained from the Natural Stimulus”.
“Dog Salivates to Food”
“Food Paired With Bell”
“Dog Salivates to Bell”
“Bell Paired with Light”
“Dog Salivates to Light”, even though Light never paired with food.
What Timing is most Effective for Conditioning
Conditioning is most effective when conditioned (“New”) stimulus is presented immediately before unconditioned (“Natural”) stimulus
– Usually ½ second to a few seconds
What is “Extinction” in Classical Conditioning
The Gradual weakening and apparent disappearance of conditioned behavior; occurs when the
conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus
“If you condition a dog to salivate at the bell, and then a long repetition of bell appearances occur without any food, the dog will eventually disassociate the bell with food”.
What is “Spontaneous Recovery” in Classical Conditioning
Reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response
after a period of time without exposure to the conditioned stimulus
“If you condition a dog to salivate at the bell, and then a long repetition of bell appearances occur without any food, the dog will eventually disassociate the bell with food”.
However, after some time without any further bell-food pairings, the bell is rung again, and the dog unexpectedly salivates. This is spontaneous recovery—the dog’s salivation reappears after it had previously been extinguished.
Who coined Spontaneous Recovery in Classical Conditioning
Russian Physiologist: Ivan Pavlov
Who is known to have improved on Classical Conditioning after Pavlov
American Psychologist: John B. Watson
What is John B. Watson known for
Watson is known for expanding Classical Conditioning principles to include “Human Behavior and emotions”, arguing that human behavior is primarily the result of conditioned response
“Behaviorism” Approach to Conditioning
Who was known for their work on Behaviorism
American Psychologist: John B. Watson
Who conducted the case of “Little Albert”
John B. Watson
How old was “Little Albert”
11 Months Old
What happened in the case of “Little Albert”
Little Albert was conditioned to respond to a white rat in fear with
Loud Noise: Unconditioned Stimulus
White Rat: Conditioned Stimulus
Fear: Unconditioned Response
What field did John B. Watson go on to use the Classical Conditioning principles in
Advertising.
* These principles are widely used in today’s commercials and print ads, pairing emotion-evoking images with otherwise neutral stimuli, like soft drinks or new cars.
Who coined “Taste Aversions”
John Garcia
What is a “Taste Aversion”
A Classically Conditioned Response in which one starts to have a dislike for or an avoidance of a particular food or substance, after falling ill from prior experience with the food or substance before
How do “Taste Aversions” violate the standard Conditioning Model
- Single Trial : Conditioning Usually takes multiple pairing attempts, but in this case it only takes one.
- Long Delays between Conditioning: Usually conditioning occurs when an US and CS are presented almost immediately after or at the same time as eachother, but in this case, it takes multiple hours
- Taste Aversion is highly SPECIFIC: You can’t just pair any neutral stimulus with a response in this case
What is Biological Preparedness
Organisms are biologically predisposed to form certain associations more easily than others due to evolutionary factors.
Essentially, it suggests that certain types of learning are easier and more “natural” for an organism because those types of associations were advantageous for survival in their environment.
Who coined Biological Preparedness
Martin Seligman
What did Ohman and Mineka state
Because poisonous snakes, reptiles, and insects have been
associated with danger throughout the evolution of mammals,
there is an evolved “fear module” in the brain that is highly
sensitized to such evolutionarily relevant stimuli.
Evolutionary Processes can make conditioning easier in fears and phobias
What is Operant Conditioning
Behaviors are influenced by the consequences that follow them.
“Discipline and Incentivices”
“Punishment and Reinforcement”
Who is Edward L. Thorndike
First psychologist to systematically
investigate animal learning and
how voluntary behaviors are
influenced by their consequences
- Trial and Error Learning
- Law of Effect
Who coined Operant Conditioning
B.F. Skinner
Using Thorndike’s Work on Law and Effect
What experiment did Thorndike perform
The Cat in the Puzzle Box
Cat got faster at escaping
What experiment did B.F Skinner Perform
The Skinner Box
What was the Skinner Box
A box that contained a rat or pigeon and involved incentives and stimuli to test responses.
What is Positive Reinforcement
Response is followed by the addition of a reinforcing stimulus, increasing the likelihood that the response will be repeated in similar situations
“Because you did your homework, you GET a good grade”
“Earning something”
What is Negative Reinforcement
Response results in the removal of,
avoidance of, or escape from a punishing stimulus, increasing the likelihood that the response will be
repeated in similar situations
“Because you wore gloves, you AVOIDED getting frostburn”
“Protecting/Escaping From or Preventing Something”
What are the two types of Reinforcment
Positve and Negative
What are the two types of Reinforcing Stimuli
Primary and Secondary
What is a Primary Reinforcer
Stimulus or event that is
naturally or inherently reinforcing for a given species
such as food, water, or other biological necessities
What is a Secondary (Conditioned) Reinforcer
Secondary (conditioned) reinforcer: Stimulus or event that has acquired reinforcing value by being associated with a primary reinforcer
such as money, tokens, grades, awards, etc.
What are the two types of Punishments
Punishment by Application (Positive)
Punishment by Removal (Negative)
Who Coined Punishment and Reinforcement
B.F. Skinner
What is the name for Conditioning involving Punishment and Reinforcement
Operant Conditioning
What is an Operant
Any behavior that is voluntary and can be influenced by consequences
What is Punishment by Application
A situation in which an operant is
followed by presentation or addition of an aversive stimulus;
called positive punishment
“The addition of a belt and a whooping”
What is Punishment by Removal
A situation in which an operant is
followed by the removal or subtraction of a reinforcing stimulus;
also called negative punishment
“The taking away of devices and fun”
What is Continuous Reinforcement
A schedule of reinforcement where EVERY occurrence of a particular response is reinforced (Raising Expectation)
What is Partial Reinforcement
A schedule of reinforcement where NOT EVERY occurrence of a particular response is reinforced
What are Partial Reinforcements more resistant to
Extinction
Why are Partial Reinforcements more resistant to Extinction
Because the nature of NOT reinforcing every time there’s an occurrence, doesn’t overly raise expectation
What are the types of Scheduled Reinforcement?
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Variable Ratio (VR)
Fixed Interval (FI)
Variable Interval (VI)
What is Fixed Ratio (FR) Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR) reinforcement is a type of partial reinforcement where a behavior is reinforced after a set number of responses—the same number every time.
Example: “Buy 10 smoothies, get 1 free.”
You know exactly how many purchases it takes to get your reward, so you stay consistent until you hit that number.
What is Variable Ratio (VR) Reinforcement
Variable Ratio (VR) reinforcement is a type of partial reinforcement where a behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses—but the number varies around a certain average.
Example: “Slot Machines – You might win on your 3rd pull, then your 8th, then your 2nd.”
What is Fixed Interval (FI) Reinforcement
A Fixed Interval (FI) reinforcement schedule is a type of partial reinforcement where a behavior is reinforced only after a set, predictable amount of time has passed, and only if the behavior occurs after that interval.
“Paychecks - You get paid every 2 weeks regardless of how hard you work, as long as you show up.”
What is Variable Interval (VI) Reinforcement
A Variable Interval (VI) reinforcement schedule is a type of partial reinforcement where a behavior is reinforced after unpredictable or varying amounts of time have passed—as long as the behavior is performed after that time.
“Waiting for a fish while fishing -
You cast your line and don’t know how long it’ll take for a fish to bite.”
Who coined Cognitive Maps
Edward C. Tolman
What did Edward C. Tolman Argue
Classical Conditioning actually involves more internal Cognitive Processes than just observable ones,
such as Expectancy, Thinking, and etc.
Mental Activity is the drive behind this
Who coined “Learned Helplessness”
Seligman
What is “Learned Helplessness”
The cognitive expectation that
behavior would have no effect on
the environment causes a person or
animal to become passive.
What happened in Seligman’s Dog Shock Experiment
Dogs were placed in a situation where they were shocked and had no way to escape.
Later, even when a clear way out was provided, the dogs didn’t try to escape.
They just gave up, even though escape was possible.
Why? Because they had learned they were helpless during the first phase.
Who’s experiment demonstrated Learned Helplessness
Seligman and His Dog Shock Experiment
What is Instinctive Drift
Naturally occurring behaviors that interfere with operant responses
When an animal’s innate behaviors start to override trained behaviors, even if they were reinforced.
Who coined the Bobo Doll Study
Albert Bandura
What did the BoBo Doll Study Prove
Children watching a violent video clip
seemed to imitate aggressive
behavior.
– Demonstrated the principle
that expectation of reinforcement (by watching someone being rewarded) can act to reinforce a behavior
Definition of Memory
A group of related mental processes that are involved in acquiring, storing, and retrieving information
What are the 3 Major Processes of Memory
Storage
Encoding
Retrieval
What is Encoding
Transforming information into a form
that can be entered and retained by memory system
What is Storage
Retaining information in memory so that it can be used at a later time
What is Retrieval
Recovering stored information for
conscious awareness
What is the Stage Model of Memory
The model that shows how information is transferred from one memory stage to another
Sensory Memory
Short-Term Memory
Long-Term Memory
Two Types of Sensory Memory
Visual + Auditory
What is another name for Visual Memory
Iconic Memory, Brief memory of an image, or icon
What is another name for Auditory Memory
Echoic Memory, Brief memory of Sounds
How long does Visual Memory Initially Last
Approx 1/4 to 1/2 a second
How long does Auditory Memory Initially Last
Approx. 3 to 4 seconds
What happened in Sperling’s Sensory Memory experiment
Participants stared at a screen and rows of letters were flashed very briefly—for just 1/20th of a second. Then, the screen went blank. The participants then immediately repeated as many of the letters as they could remember seeing.
What is the Capacity of Short Term Memory
The Magic Number 4 plus or minus one
Through what Rehearsal is Short Term Memory Encoded
Maintenance Rehearsal
How Long does Short Term Memory initially last
About 20 Seconds
What is Working Memory
The Active, Conscious manipulation of temporarily stored information with 3 main components
Working memory is like your brain’s scratchpad. It’s the system you use to temporarily hold and work with information in your mind while you’re doing something, like solving a math problem, remembering directions, or holding a sentence in your head while reading or speaking.
How long does Long Term Memory last
Longer than 20 Seconds
What is the capacity of Long Term Memory
Limitless
What Rehearsal Process is used to Encode in Long Term Memory
Elaborate Rehearsal
What are the 3 types of Information stored in Long Term Memory
Semantic
Episodic
Procedural
Autobiographical Can be Included
What is Procedural Memory
How to perform different skills, operations, and actions
What is Episodic Memory
Memory of specific events or episodes
What is Semantic Memory
General Knowledge
What is Autobiographical Memory
Memory of Life Events
What two “Types” of Memory are stored in Long Term Memory
Explicit Memory and Implicit Memory
What is Explicit Memory
Memory with Conscious Recall
“Things you recall like vivid memories or images/sounds”
What is Implicit Memory
Memory without Conscious Recall
“Things you remember how to do without needing to Recall”
Which Information Type is also an Implicit Memory
Procedural Memory
Which Information Type is also an Explicit Memory
Episodic Memory and Semantic Memory
What is a Tip of the Tongue
The sensation of knowing that specific information is stored in long-term memory but being unable to retrieve it.
How often is a Tip of the Tongue Experience
– People have about one TOT experience per week.
What percentage of TOT’s are resolved within minuts
90 percent of TOT experiences are eventually resolved, often within a few minutes.
What is Recall
Test of LTM that involves retrieving memories without cues
What is Recognition
Test of LTM that involves identifying correct information from a series of possible choices
What are two parts of the Serial Position Effect
Primacy (First Position) and Recency (End Position)
What are Flashbulb Memories
Emotionally Charged memories that can be vividly recalled
Who first began studying “Forgetting” Using nonsense syllables
Ebbinghaus
What is One of the most common reasons for forgettin
“Encoding Failure” occurs when information is not encoded initially
into long term memory
– Absentmindedness
What is a Prospective Memory Error
Failure to remember what needs to be done in the future
– Retrieval cue failure
What is Interference
When Memories interfere with other Memories
What are two types of Interference
Retroactive and Proactive
What is Retroactive Interference
a NEW memory interferes with OLD memory
What is Proactive Interference
an OLD memory interferes with NEW memory
What is Motivated Forgetting
When an undesired memory is held back from awareness
What are two types of Motivated Forgetting
Suppression and Repression
What is Memory Suppression
Conscious Forgetting
What is Memory Reppression
Unconscious Forgetting
What is Deja Vu
A brief but intense feeling of remembering a scene
or an event that is actually being experienced for the first time.
How many people on average experience Deja Vu
1 of 6 people (16 percent) experience déjà vu about once a
month.
What are Schemas
Organized clusters of
knowledge and information about
particular topics that we gain through past experiences.
Because we’ve been in Classes, had Experiences in Class, and Have Seen Classes. We have a schema of memories associated with the topic of Classes
What are Scripts
Schemas that involve
typical sequence of actions and
behaviors at a common event.
Your restaurant script might be:
Walk in → Wait to be seated → Look at menu → Order food → Eat → Pay → Leave
If something messes that up (e.g. you have to pay first), it might throw you off because it breaks the script.
What are False Memories
False memories are created
for actions that would have
been consistent with a script
Your brain fills in the blanks or gets tricked by suggestions or expectations.
What Animal did Kandel Experiment on for Memory Trace
Aplysia
Two Types of Amnesia
Retrograde Amnesia and Anterograde Amnesia
What is Retrograde Amnesia
Inability to remember past episodic information; Common after Head Injury
What is Anterograde Amnesia
Inability to form new memories; Hippocampus damage
What is Memory Consolidation
The gradual, physical process of converting new long-term memories to stable, enduring memory codes
Who is Henry Molaison
At age 9 got into a bike accident causing hippocampus damage, rendering him unable to form new memories.
What Brain Structures are Involved in Memory
Amygdala
Cerebellum
Hippocampus
Prefrontal Cortex
Medial Temporal Lobe
What does the Amygdala do
Encodes Emotional Aspects of Memories
What does the Cerebellum do
Stores Memories involving Movement
What does the Hippocampus do
Encodes and transfers explicit memories to Long-Term
What does the Prefrontal Cortex
Encodes Memory involving the “Sequence” of Events
What does the Medial Temporal Lobe do
(Not Visible) Aids the Hippocampus in Encoding and Transferring Explicit Memories to Long-Term
11 Number Sequence
71904260418
Dr. Rackleys Number
225-771-2313
Why do Football Players Huddle
Hearing Impaled University Needed to Get Close to Hear
(Gaudette University Washington D.C)
Who reads most of the Power Points
Jackson and Black
What is significant about a Penny
Lincoln is Facing away from Libery
Why are Hushpuppies called Hushpuppies
Slave women in kitchen threw corn balls at Dogs
