Psychology (Learning and Memory) Flashcards
How do you know it is a classically conditioned response?
The learner is passive, requires no conscious effort.
The behaviour/ feeling/ response is involuntary.
Contiguity
The formation of a connection or an association between two events when the events occur close together in time or space (factor affecting classical conditioning - association of stimuli)
Timing (factor affecting classical conditioning)
0.5-2.5 seconds between pairing of NS before UCS
Classical conditioning (Pavlov’s dog)
An organism learns to produce an involuntary behaviour/ response to a neutral stimulus in a way in which prior learning would not occur
Classical conditioning logbook task
Wizz fizz
Aim: learn to salivate to the sound of a bell
CC wizz fizz logbook task process
UCS: wizz fizz
UCR: salivation
NS: bell
CS: bell
CR: salivation
Operant conditioning (Skinner box)
Learning where the consequence of behaviour determines the likelihood that the behaviour will be performed again in the future (learner is active, behaviour voluntary, goal-directed)
Order of presentation and timing in operant conditioning
Present consequence immediately after behaviour
How does appropriateness affect operant conditioning
The reward needs to be seen as desirable if reinforcing and undesirable is punishing
Side effects of punishment in operant conditioning
Frustration in learner and aggression towards punisher
Why is observational learning considered to be a social cognitive approach to learning?
Involves a relationship between the learner and the model (social) and cognitive processes such as memory (creating a mental representation to be used at a later date)
Similarity and difference between observational learning and operant conditioning
sim: both involve active learners
diff: in operant conditioning the learner experiences reinforcement directly, whereas in observational learning the learner experiences vicarious reinforcement/ punishment by viewing the consequence of the model - this guides future actions of the learner
Observational learning (Bandura)
When someone uses observation of another person’s actions and their consequences to guide their future actions
Observational learning logbook task
Origami frog
aim: to learn origami through observational learning
Origami frog logbook task process
Attention - learner actively focuses on the steps of the origami video
Retention - learner forms a mental representation of the steps involved in origami folding
Reproduction - in order to imitate the origami steps the learner would need the physical (fine motor skills to fold paper) and intellectual (know how to fold it) capabilities
Motivation - the learner must have the desire to fold the origami frog
Reinforcement - if they learner gets praise on how well they fold the origami frog, it will increase the chance that they will fold like that again in the future
Wizz Fizz logbook task conclusion
The hypothesis was supported. The results showed that repeated pairings of the sound of the bell with eating wizz fizz resulted in the occurrence of salivation to the bell alone. This suggests that people can be classically conditioned to salivate to a bell.
Types of reinforcement
Vicarious reinforcement/ punishment - observing the consequences of other actions to guide our own behaviour
Self-reinforcement - reinforced by meeting our own standards of performance
Factors affecting observational learning
Likeability - characteristics that make them likeable
Attractiveness - find the model pleasant to look at
Credibility - model has qualification associated with the skill being modelled so you trust them
Prestige - model is well known
Similarity - similar characteristics to you
How is classical conditioning and operant conditioning similar and different?
Sim: Both use reinforcement and punishment to guide future behaviour
Diff: (cc) learner is not active, no conscious effort and response is involuntary
(oc) learner is active, conscious effort and response is voluntary
Acronym
Creates a pronounceable word using the first letter of each word to be retained (ANZAC). Each letter acts as a retrieval cue for the word to be remembered.
Acrostic
Creates a phrase by turning the first letter of each word to be remembered into a different word of the phrase (Never Eat Soggy Weetbix). The first letter of each word acts as the retrieval cue for the word to be remembered.
Method of loci
- Think of a well known location that has already been stored in LTM
- Visually link each step/ term in order with different landmarks in the layout
- When the terms are needed to be remembered, visually imagine yourself walking through the location and using the landmarks as a retrieval cue for each step to be remembered in order
How are songlines used in oral cultures?
Feature key features of the landscape to be remembered by linking them to certain landmarks in the landscape
Compare the use of mnemonics in written vs oral cultures
written (western) individualistic
oral collectivism/ kinship
Technique to improve STM (chunking)
Grouping smaller separate bits of information into one larger chunk of information (takes up less room in STM)
Technique to improve STM (maintenance rehearsal)
Repeating information over and over again (verbal or non-verbal)
Technique to improve STM (elaborative rehearsal)
Linking of new information in a meaningful way with information already stored in LTM eg. mnemonics
Declarative memory
Explicit memory (episodic and semantic) with awareness
Non-declarative memory
Implicit memory (procedural and classically conditioned) without awareness
Amygdala
Encoding and consolidation of emotional information (episodic memories and classically conditioned responses)
Hippocampus
Encoding and consolidation of explicit memories (semantic and episodic)
Retrieval of only episodic memories
Neocortex
Storage of explicit memories
Basal ganglia
Encoding of habits (procedural memories)
Cerebellum
Encoding and temporary storage of procedural memories
Encoding and long term storage of classically conditioned responses (not emotional)
What does consolidation require?
- 30 mins
- no interruptions
- physical changes to neurons
Autobiographical memories vs episodic memories
Links past events into a personal history (mixture of memories, episodic and semantic memories) whereas episodic memories is a single past event
Imagined futures
Hypothetical experiences and situations that you create in your mind about the future (episodic and semantic memories) - neocortex, hippocampus
Aphantasia
Without imagination
- struggles with imagined futures and autobiographical memories
Where in the brain does Alzheimer’s disease first begin?
Begins in hippocampus and moves to frontal lobe
Biological causes for Alzheimer’s disease
Amyloid plaque - forms on axon terminals and disrupts neural transmission
Neurofibrillary tangles - attaches to neuron and leads to cell death
Symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease
- trouble with imagined futures and recalling autobiographical memories
- decline in procedural memories
- decline in short term memory
Symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease in early stage
Gets lost in familiar places
Symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease in middle stage
Anxiety, agitation
Symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease in late stage
Loses bladder and bowel control
Similarities and differences between the method of loci and songlines
Sim: create associations between spatial locations and conceptual knowledge
Diff: (s) sung vs (mol) not sung
Aboriginal ways of knowing
- through relationships
- shared through oral communication
Aboriginal ways of learning
- storing sharing (dreamtime)
- non verbal (dancing rituals)
Multi stage model of memory logbook task (functions and times)
Sensory memory: receives sensory information from environment (d: 0.2-4 secs, c: unlimited)
In order to transfer the information to STM, must pay attention.
STM: rehearse the information in order to transfer it to LTM (d: 12-30 secs, c: 5-9 pieces)
Once stored in LTM, can retrieve information and hold them in STM to be used (d: potentially permanent, c: potentially unlimited)
Comparing method of loci to maintenance rehearsal logbook task
aim: to determine which technique is better at helping to recall words in order
Comparing method of loci to maintenance rehearsal logbook task - research design, IV, DV
RD: repeated measures
IV: technique used - method of loci or maintenance rehearsal
DV: number of words recalled in order
Comparing method of loci to maintenance rehearsal logbook task - which method was more effective?
Method of loci (form of elaborative rehearsal) encoding provides links between new information and storage strengthens the connections for greater retention of the words. This provides cues for retrieval where the information is more easily retrieved from LTM to STM
Comparing method of loci to maintenance rehearsal logbook task - extraneous variable
Order effects
Comparing method of loci to maintenance rehearsal logbook task - conclusion
The hypothesis was supported. Displayed in the data as the recall mean in method of loci was higher than in maintenance rehearsal. Suggesting that the method of loci is more effective in memorisation of recalling words in order compared to maintenance rehearsal.
Deconstruct reconstruct
Break down the steps and learn them individually (deconstruct) before attempting to put all the steps together (reconstruct)
How do long term memories contribute to autobiographical memories?
In order to create a narrative of the event, episodic memories will contribute physiological/ emotional components such as hunger and being nervous.
Semantic memories will contribute factual information such as naming the people who went and the location.
How do autobiographical memories create an imagined future?
Helps to create predictions based on episodic and semantic components of the autobiographical memory. Using this information you can predict that in the future you will experience the same episodic and semantic memories.
