Psychology as a Science

Question 1

What is Science in Psychology?

Answer 1

What is being studied.
The method of research used.
And the extent that those are scientific.

Question 2

The Scientific Method (The Scientific Cycle of Inquiry)

Answer 2

1) Theory: From past scientifically credible research
2) Hypthosis: Falsifiable statement which can show reductionism.
3) Testing against Reality: Empiricism. The idea that knowledge comes from our senses.
4) Strength of Results: Limitations like R and O
5) Amending the theory based on findings or developing a new theory.

Question 3

Popper

Answer 3

The Hypoethtico Deductive Model of Reasoning:

• Testing a theory of scientific knowledge
• We need to falsify hypotheses, not prove them true because knowledge about ‘what is’ can never be proved.
• Science does not use rational arguments but when something is known then logical deductions can be made.

Question 4

Methodology (Is and Is Not a Science)

Answer 4

+ Lab Experiments: Quant Data (brain scans) Objective. Reliable. Limited bias and measurable (Bandura/Milgram)
-Case Studies and Field Experiments: Qual Data. Susceptible to bias and low R
(Phineas Gage: No baseline measure before the accident and data from those who knew him. Couldn’t go back to work and concluded that brain damage had an effect. He got another job and did it well so no change)

Question 5

Unified Paradigm

Answer 5

Model, Theory or Area that follows the same principles

Question 6

Unified Paradigm (Is and Is Not a Science)

Answer 6

+Psychologits all want to explain and predict human behaviour
-There is a lack of paradigm in explaining different areas of psych (Bio states agg could come from evolution or brain structure)

Question 7

Objectivity

Answer 7

All sources of bias are minimized. Subjective ideas are eliminated. In pursuit of science, facts will speak for themselves, even if they turn out to be different from what the investigator hoped.

Question 8

Objectivity (Is and Is Not a Science)

Answer 8

+Quant methods operationalise concepts to measure them. Inter-rater observations minimise bias (In Bandura, 20 min observation through a one-way mirror. 5-second intervals. 240 response units for each child. Inter-rater reliability was 0.89. So agreed on behaviour removing subjectivity)
-Humans studying humans can never be objective (Case Studies. Psychologist knows there subjects well. Luke and Agoha, spent time with Amy gathering details on her life, cause and family. Subjectivity in looking for improvements=researcher bias)

Question 9

Falsification

Answer 9

Proved as false not true.

Question 10

Falsification (Is and Is Not a Science)

Answer 10

+Approaches that are more scientific (Bio) have methods that are easier to falsify (Alpers. The localized tumour was said to be the cause of his outbursts)
- Easy to find supporting studies and the psychodynamic approach cannot be falsified (Concepts in Freud’s theory are not measurable so cannot be rigorously tested. Unconscious is unreachable and concepts studied lack scientific credibility as they are immeasurable. Cannot be falsified)

Question 11

Replication

Answer 11

• Ability to accurately reproduce something correctly, such as the procedure of a study in order to test for consistency.
• Reliable if it is well-designed with SP that can be replicated accurately.
• Unreliable if the researchers make on-the-spot decisions, use imagination or bring personal bias

Question 12

Replication (Is and Is Not a Science)

Answer 12

+ Lab experiments use high control and standardised procedures that can be easily replicated(Baddeley improved the reliability of his own study by getting rid of the read-aloud word lists as some participants had hearing difficulties and replacing them with slides. Everyone saw the same word for the same amount of time, 3s)
- Some methods are more complex that cannot be standardised (Clinical interviews need to be tailored to allow a patient to fully divulge symptoms. No standardisation so no repetition as every clinician is different with a different body of knowledge)

Question 13

Control

Answer 13

A variable that is kept the same throughout the experiment.

Question 14

Control (Is and Is not a Science)

Answer 14

+Lab Experiments have standardised procedures.
-Observations have EVs that aren’t always identifiable and controllable, control limits and realism. They have no control as they are just observing and not manipulating.

Question 15

Predictions

Answer 15

A hypothesis that is formed based on an assumption of what will happen is what is tested to get disproved.

Question 16

Predictions (Is and Is Not Science)

Answer 16

+Theories can leas to real life predictions (CC works in advertising. CC is used to make people buy the products, using an association with the product and a better feeling/outcome for their lives. For example, many beer ads prominently feature attractive young women wearing bikinis. The young women (US) naturally elicit a favourable, mildly aroused feeling (UR) in most men. The beer is simply associated with this effect)
-Too general for precision (Szh has dopamine and social causation as hypotheses for its cause. No definitive cause as neither can prove the condition completely)

Question 17

Generalisation

Answer 17

Applying a behaviour or conclusion to a wider population

Question 18

Human Generalisation (Is and Is Not Science)

Answer 18

\+Random Sampling methods like stratified sampling can help eliminate bias that would prevent generalisability. 
-Studies conducted before the 1970s often had samples of white middle-class males from the USA (Milgram had a
sample of 40 is quite large, but anomalies might spoil the results) and current studies use volunteers which can also cause problems (Volunteers are likely to be particularly obedient so are not acting naturally. Loftus and Palmer used student volunteers who are not exactly applicable to the wider population as their motivations may be different)

Question 19

Animal Generalisation (Is and Is Not Science)

Answer 19

+The process of Evolution has led to similar traits with rats having similar CNS to humans
(Evolution is widely accepted by scientists. Implies that we can learn from the behaviour of animals and draw conclusions about human behaviour. Few scientists deny this. Rats and humans share 95% of DNA)
-Evoluntariy discontinuity for animals being further along and living in different environments (Despite evolutionary similarities, cannot generalise from the animal because our thought processes and behaviours are too different. All animal studies are “low-quality research” and fail Bateson’s decision-making cube test)

Question 20

Validity

Answer 20

Refers to a test’s ability to measure what it is supposed to measure.

Question 21

Validity (Is and Is Not a Science)

Answer 21

+Lab Experiments are more objective and free from bias with the ability to establish cause and effect (Meltzer looked into the effectiveness of drug treatments for Szh. Found that drug gave significant improvements in functioning compared to the placebo group. Improvements were due to drug and not EVs)
-DCs can cause bias as well as other and there are other forms like Researcher bias which can come when they are analysing qual data (Authoritarian Personality and Accquenstice Bias: Possible to get a high score just by ticking the same line of boxes down. People who agree with the items on the F-scale are therefore not necessarily authoritarian but ‘acquiescers’ and the scale is just measuring the tendency to agree to everything.)

Question 22

Reductionism

Answer 22

Reductionism means reducing everything to the simplest possible explanation: bare physical facts, numbers, the brain. It involves taking things apart and looking at what they’re made of but missing out on the bigger picture.

Question 23

Holism

Answer 23

Holism refers to any approach that emphasizes the whole rather than their constituent parts. ‘the whole is greater than the sum of its parts’.

Question 24

Reductionism/Holism (Is and Is not a Science)

Answer 24

+Reductionsim makes concepts measurable (Milgram operationalised obedience into volts when obedience in real life is far more complex and includes multiple factors can’t be operationalised)
-Holism is less measurable and consequently less scientific (Eysenck combines biological and social factors. Personality is determined by biological constitution, which, in turn, is determined by genes. These genetic factors exert their effects under the influence of environmental/social factors. Relies heavily on the self-report measures of personality)

Question 25

Social Psychology is a Science

Answer 25

1. )Milgram was a lab experiment. Reliable as he carried out 19 Variations of his baseline study. Obedience into volts. Burger replicated, followed Milgram’s script wherever possible. Milgram also filmed parts of his study, allowing viewers to review his findings (inter-rater R). Burger found that 70% of participants were prepared to go past 150V, compared to 82.5% in Milgram’s Variation #5. Not stat sig diff due to the number of people involved. (Reliability)
2. ) Agency Theory: Milgram’s was the basis. Milgram observed the ppts in the autonomous state, go through the Agentic Shift, experience moral strain and become agents for the AF, carrying out acts that went against their conscience. Burger also found (70%) obedience when he replicated this. Empathy doesn’t make people disobedient it just increases their moral strain, making the Agentic State more tempting. Burger’s results were consistent with Agency Theory. Could have falsified it if lots of ppts had refused to obey the orders from the authority figure to give a 165V shock. Shows that Agency Theory could be falsified so a scientific theory.
3. ) Questionnaires and Surveys can be replicated to test for repeatable objective quantifiable data
4. ) Inter-Rater reliability as two researchers can agree on themes for thematic analysis.

Question 26

Social Psychology IS NOT a science

Answer 26

1. ) Humans judging human can never be unbiased. DCs, Researcher bias. Authoritarian Personality and Accquenstice Bias. Also, the information on the patients’ childhood was self-report.
2. ) Questionnaires are open to bias. DCs. The researcher influences the answers given. This could be deliberate or accidental. Researchers often try to make sure the researcher is the same sex and race as the interviewee. Participant variables. Respondents who are articulate will give a lot more quality information in interviews; will respond to questionnaires at length. People who speak a different language or have a dialect that is different from the researcher might not understand the questions or the researcher might not understand

Question 27

Classic Study: Sherif

Answer 27

1. ) Not valid as it was a field experiment. Less control over EVs that might bias the results. This makes it difficult for another researcher to replicate the study in exactly the same way. Sherif lacks internal validity as EVs can explain the results and prevent replication. Sherif does not have a “normal” summer camp to compare his camp to, as he has no control group. Normal for food fights and raids to happen in summer camps where the counsellors aren’t imposing many disciplines. Normal for such boys to end up as friends after 3 weeks, regardless of the special tasks. Sherif may have exaggerated how much of the boys’ behaviour was due to intergroup factors.
2. ) Did not follow an entirely standardised procedure or script all the interactions with the boys. In fact, Sherif’s ability to change his plans and adapt to how the boys behaved was a strength of the study, but it makes it less scientific. Despite this, Sherif tried to remain objective: his camp counsellors would not suggest any actions to the boys but would help them with decisions they had already come to. Perry (2014) argues that the observers had a much bigger influence on the boys than Sherif intended. Rattlers took their name from an incident where a senior counsellor pulled out a gun and shot two snakes, which impressed the boys.
3. ) Only with them 12 hours a day.
4. ) He used a numbered scoring system for the boys’ friendship patterns, which collected quantitative data. Eagles out-group friendships rose from around 8% to 23% Used multiple observers on occasions, creating inter-rater reliability. Where possible, he tape recorded the boys’ conversations, so they could be played back and analysed later. The bean-counting test along with the tournament and the prizes could be repeated.

Question 28

Cognitive IS a Science

Answer 28

1. ) Sebastian & Hernandez-Gil was a lab experiment. High in reliability with strict control over extraneous variables, e.g. no learning difficulties. And a standardised procedure was used e.g. 1 digit per second, therefore allowing for replication. Other research has shown similar cultural issues on digit span. There is a range of studies to support the idea that language and the phonological loop are interrelated therefore adding reliability. Tries to be replicable as this means that other scientists can repeat research and check results; the peer review process and makes science objective.
2. ) Memory is believed to be universal. Unified Paradigm.
3. ) Brain scans show memory problems are due to impairments. Brain imaging technique that has been used (with growing success) since the 1970s. Produces objective and replicable results and it can be tested and re-tested to check its reliability.

Question 29

Cognitive IS NOT a Science

Answer 29

1.) No definitive test for memory so not a unified paradigm
2.) Uses Case Studies like KF, who suffered brain damage from a motorcycle accident that damaged his STM. Impairment was mainly for verbal information, his memory for visual information was largely unaffected.Case studies that are rich in qualitative data may be unreliable. This is because they can be highly subjective: the researcher’s own, highly personal, impression of the participant.
3.)Bartlett created a theory of Reconstructive Memory which is not following the hypothetico-deductive model.
Bartlett’s central insight was that memory is not like a tape recorder: it doesn’t faithfully play back our experiences. Instead, it changes or “reconstructs” them imaginatively. Bartlett’s ideas were neglected for decades but were brought back into the mainstream again when they were supported by experimental research by Elizabeth Loftus. Loftus argued that Reconstructive Memory implies that eyewitnesses to crimes will often be unreliable.

Question 30

Classic Study: Baddeley

Answer 30

1.) Lab Experiment. Psychologists make research replicable by following standardised procedures and scripting their interactions with participants.
Baddeley followed the same procedure with every recall test, showing participants the same words on each trial for the same amount of time, followed by the same interference task. So has a standardised procedure. Improved the reliability by getting rid of the read-aloud word lists (some participants had hearing difficulties) and replacing them with slides. Everyone saw the same word for the same amount of time (3s).
2.) Reduced memory. In attempts to be scientific, he went too far in breaking down human experience to its component parts, missing out on the “big picture”.
Baddeley focuses entirely on scores in a memory recall test and Schmolck et al.’s study on semantic memory uses picture cards rather than personal memories. Theories like WM break memory processes down into smaller sub-processes, like the Visuo-Spatial Sketch Pad or the Phonological Loop.
3.) Evidence of the Hypothetico Deductive Model in Baddeley 1966 who adapted an experiment to separate STM and LTM. Baddeley (and Hitch) went on to develop the Working Memory Model in the 1970s so this study is quite important as part of the background to that theory. It charts Baddeley’s growing realisation that memory was, in fact, more complicated than the Multi-Store Model made out.

Question 31

Learning IS a Science

Answer 31

1.) Hypothetico-deductive model in action in Bandura’s Bobo doll studies. Bandura’s research question is, do we learn aggressive behaviour from role models? From this he forms a hypothesis, that children exposed to an aggressive role model will go on to show more aggressive behaviour than children exposed to a passive role model or no role model. Bandura tests several related hypotheses, about children being more likely to imitate a same-sex role model and the effects of different sorts of modelled aggression. Tests his hypotheses against the facts by observing aggressive behaviour. This is empirical testing, because the behaviour can be observed. Because he observes the increased aggression in the aggressive-model condition, he creates a theory. SLT - which states that complex behaviour is learned through observing and imitating role models. Leads to more research questions: do role models on TV or in cartoons have the same effect as live human role models? What is the effect of seeing a role model being rewarded or punished? Bandura’s 1963 and 1965 studies form hypotheses based on these questions and test them. The results are used to amend SLT, adding in features like vicarious learning. SLT becomes stronger as a theory each time more empirical evidence comes out of a study to support it.

2.) Animal Research on OP by Skinner.
Carried out research on animals, famously in rats. He placed the animals in a “Skinner box” which contained a lever, a light and a food dispenser. If the rat pressed the lever, the light came on and a food pellet rolled down the chute. This is positive reinforcement. At first the rat would press the lever accidentally. However, the consequence was contiguous (the food was dispensed instantly) and contingent (the light coming on alerted the rat to what it had done). Rats quickly learned to press the lever to get food. Strictly scientific, being carried out on animals in lab conditions or using brain imaging techniques like MRI. Because the theory only looks at behaviours, every step in the conditioning process is observable. This adds to the credibility of the theory, since you can see it happen with your own eyes.

3.) Bandura’s procedure is very reliable because it can be replicated, he replicated the study in ’63 and ‘65. This was easy to do because of the standardised procedure (same script, same checklist categories). Also used two observers behind the one-way mirror. This creates inter-rater reliability because a behaviour had to be noted by both observers otherwise it didn’t count.
99% agreement in the 1965 study.

Question 32

Learning IS NOT a Science

Answer 32

1. ) Cannot generalise from animal experiments to humans because our thought processes and behaviours are too diff. All animal studies are “low-quality research” and fail Bateson’s decision-making cube test. Research on rats and pigeons shows conditioning taking place, generalising the conclusions to human learning is not so clear-cut. For one thing, there are other learning theories CC and SLT and it is usually difficult to tell whether one or the other is largely responsible when something is learned. For example, a phobia may be formed through association AND because the consequences were unpleasant.
2. ) Operationalising behaviours. Focuses entirely on behaviours and ignores cognitions. Cognitions are thought-processes and include things like personality, willpower and motivation. Sigmund Freud argued that a lot of self-destructive behaviour comes from hidden thought-processes in the unconscious mind and are not learned and cannot be un-learned so easily. Reduction on behaviour that ignores the ‘big picture’
3. ) Observations are subjective as humans can never be truly objective when interpreting behaviour
4. ) Field Experiments

Question 33

Classic Study: Watson and Rayner

Answer 33

1.) Reliability and Validity. Experimental controls. Controls make the study more reliable if they rule out “one-off” events occurring. They increase the internal validity if they help to ensure that the IV is the only variable causing changes in the DV. Tested Little Albert with the white rat before doing any conditioning and observed no fear response. This control makes it clear that, when Albert did show fear later (the DV), it must have been because of the conditioning (the IV). This is internal validity.
Has standardised procedures and it was carefully documented (right down to the numbers of days and the time of day) and it was filmed. For ethical reasons, the study hasn’t been replicated, but it could be replicated quite easily. The film of the procedures means we can all view Albert’s responses and see his fear for ourselves.
2.) The experiment was done on a single child, Albert. Very unrepresentative because the baby might be unusual in all sorts of ways.

Question 34

Biological IS a Science

Answer 34

1. ) Brain Scans and Research are conducted in Lab Settings. A controlled environment. The researcher is in control of everything that happens.
2. ) Generalise Animals and studies on their CNS (Rats) to humans. Human and animal studies support the idea that there are brain structures linked to agg. The limbic system which generates aggressive impulses and the pre-frontal cortex which inhibits aggressive impulses. Flynn shows the role of the limbic system in producing different sorts of aggression. Ferrari’s research on rats illustrates how dopamine and serotonin are linked to aggression in rats. These animal studies are backed up by human studies. Raine et al which also suggests the amygdala and prefrontal cortex are linked to murder, and case studies like Charles Whitman whose brain tumour may have produced his uncontrollable aggression.
3. ) Reductionist, certain areas of the brain responsible for aggression.

Question 35

Biological IS NOT a Science

Answer 35

1.) Correlations cannot establish cause and effect as no control
2.) Case Studies have complex Research that uses different methods (Charles Whitman)
3.) No unified paradigm as multiple explanations of aggression
4.) Twin studies never have 100% concordance.
Biological determinism to suggest we are determined completely by genes. Influenced by a mixture of environments and genetics. The usefulness of twin studies is limited. Can show is that concordance is slightly higher in MZ twins than DZ, suggesting that genetics influences this behaviour, but doesn’t entirely cause it. (Brendgen)
5.) Evoultainry discontinuity as we can’t generalise things about aggression from rats. Do not have the same pre-frontal cortex as humans (smaller) and may not be capable of planning or self-awareness. Animals also express their behaviour through dominance or submission. Researchers are confusing dominant behaviour with agg behaviour. Validity problem with the animal model if one sort of behaviour is being mistaken for another.

Question 36

Classic Study: Raine

Answer 36

1. ) Brain Scans are Scientific/lab. PET is a reliable brain imaging technique. Used since the 1970s. Produces objective and replicable results and it can be tested and re-tested to check its reliability.
2. ) Bio Approach is also criticised for treating humans as “meat machines” whose thinking is governed entirely by the laws of biology. Raine accused of viewing human morals entirely as brain functioning purely based on results. Suggest that some people are driven to kill by their brain structure/violence is out of their control. Not there assumption but taken out context.
3. ) Only brain activity and this could be a very reductionist view of human behaviour: doesn’t look at “the big picture”. Another study that looks at genetic and environmental factors behind aggression is Brendgen et al.

Question 37

Clinical IS a Science

Answer 37

• DSM and ICD are objective with standardised manuals to follow when diagnosing
• Brain Scans are used to compare the brains of patients with mental illness
• Animal Research (Drugs are tested on animals with symptoms then generalised to humans)
• Explanations are reductionist by themselves for disorders. Genes for AN.
• Accurate predictions can be made from learning theories like the development of the disorder (Nasser)

Question 38

Clinical IS NOT a Science

Answer 38

• Diagnostic interviews are unstructured. Produce Qual Data. So cannot be replicated and measure.
• Subjective interpretation of symptoms
• Interviewer bias on what the patients disclose
• Case Studies are hard to replicate
• Correlational Data
• Carlsson used the secondary data so can’t be sure all methods were standardised or free from bias

Question 39

Classic Study: Rosenhan

Answer 39

1.) Rosenhan trained his pseudopatients beforehand, but they didn’t follow the standardised procedures.
-9th pseudopatient was not included in Rosenhan’s report because he did not follow procedures.
-A graduate student asked his wife to bring in his college homework to do, revealing he was a psychologist. So failed to follow instructions and act consistently.
-Slater attempted to replicate by presenting herself at 9 psychiatric emergency rooms. Her symptom was an isolated auditory hallucination (‘thud’). Slater was given a diagnosis of ‘Psychotic Depression’ and prescribed antidepressants.
Spitzer, Lilienfeld & Miller challenged Slater’s findings by giving 74 emergency room psychiatrists her case description and asking about diagnosis and treatment. Only 3 psychiatrists diagnosed ‘Psychotic Depression’ and only a third recommended medication. No SP.

Question 40

Criminal IS a Science

Answer 40

Bio Explanations that use Scientific methods like brain scans
Social Explanations for crimilaity are reductionist (Labelling theory and SFP and easily measurable)

Question 41

Criminal IS NOT a Science

Answer 41

Case studies (Psychological Case Formulation) have complex procedures that are harder to replicate
Case studies on unique people (Criminals) so cannot be generalised to others
Field Experiments in EWT have lower control over variables that can affect what is Labelling
CBT is holistic and combines bio and social factors for behaviour and consequently less scientific

Question 42

Classic Study: Loftus and Palmer

Answer 42

Lab Experiment with high control and was standardised