Psychology and Sociology Section Score 124 Flashcards
1
Q
Explain the UCR, UCS, CS, CR for a classical conditioning experiment.
A
Humans and animals fear an electric shock normally. This makes the shock an unconditioned stimulus (UCS). A fear response to a shock is an unconditioned response (UCR). When the shock is paired with something neutral such as a bell the brain associates the bell with the fear of shock. The bell is now a conditioned stimulus (CS) and the fear of the bell is a conditioned response(CR).
2
Q
What is internal validity in an experiment and an example?
A
How well a study is conducted in terms of avoiding confounding variables. Groups must be randomly assigned to distribute differences between the groups.
3
Q
Who is Erik Erikson?
A
Famous for his theory on identity crisis and developmental psychology.
4
Q
Who is Albert Bandura?
A
Famous for social learning theory
5
Q
Who is Harry Harlow?
A
Harlow monkey experiments and socialization theory.
6
Q
Who is Sigmund Freud?
A
Came up with defense mechanism theory where individuals either deal with or avoid a stressor. Strategies include repression, projection, regression, and sublimation.
7
Q
Where is the circle of willis?
A
Between the Pia mater and arachnoid membrane of the brain which is where blood vessels are also located. This is the subarachnoid space.
8
Q
Bleeding between the brain and pia mater is what?
A
A parenchymal bleed.
9
Q
Bleeding between the arachnoid membrane and the dura mater is what?
A
A subdural bleed.
10
Q
Bleeding between the skull and dura mater is what?
A
An epidural bleed.
11
Q
What are the functions of the cerebral spinal fluid?
A
- Reduction of brain ischemia
- Protection of the brain
- Electrolyte balance in the brain
12
Q
What is an immediate factor that causes cell death?
A
Lack of oxygen to the cell which halts cellular respiration by stopping ATP production.
13
Q
What is the amygdala responsible for and what system is it a part of?
A
Component of the limbic system. Plays an important role in processing emotion, memories, and motivation. How we perceive and process emotion.
14
Q
What is Broca’s area responsible for?
A
Producing language, controls motor functions involved with producing speech. People with damage to this area can understand speech but have trouble initiating speech.
15
Q
What is the hypothalamus responsible for?
A
Responsible for releasing hormones and regulating body temperature. Someone with damage to this may experience depression due to the disruption of proper endocrine function. Located at the base of brain near the pituitary.
16
Q
What is Wernicke’s area responsible for?
A
Responsible for speech comprehension. Someone with damage may have incoherent speech. Located on temporal lobe on left side of brain.
17
Q
What is the frontal lobe responsible for?
A
The frontal lobes are involved in motor function, problem solving, spontaneity, memory, language, initiation, judgment, impulse control, and social and sexual behavior.
18
Q
What is the hypothalamic-pituitary axis responsible for?
A
Central stress response system. Affects adrenal glands and cortisol production. Affects reproductive organs by reducing function when environmental stressors are present. When stress is present causes lower GnRH, reduced gonadotropin release, and higher immune activation.
19
Q
What is the pre-frontal cortex responsible for?
A
Responsible for personality and is a part of the frontal lobe. Responsible for executive function and makes decisions for conflicting thoughts, good or bad, social situations.
20
Q
What is Atavism?
A
Occurs when a genotype or phenotype emerges that has not been seen for many generations.
21
Q
What is Altruism?
A
Acts in manner to benefit others at a cost to itself. Normally a reproductive cost.
22
Q
What is divergent evolution?
A
When geography causes differences to occur over generations when group of species are isolated.
23
Q
What is inclusive fitness?
A
Maximizing own genetic material in a population, includes family members.
24
Q
Who is Solomon Asch?
A
Famous line study to see effects of conformity
25
Who is Stanley Milgram?
Studied obedience to authority. Shock experiments
26
Who is Philip Zimbardo?
Stanford Prison Experiment. Obedience to authority and conforming to a role.
27
Who is Leon Festinger?
Cognitive dissonance experiment with 20 versus 1 dollar.
28
Who is James Carlsmith?
Helped Festinger with cognitive dissonance experiments.
29
What are common observable effects of opiates such as heroine?
Sleepiness, slurred speech, decreased respiration, and constriction of the pupils (miosis) are observable effects of opiates such as heroin
30
What are the common observable effects of stimulants?
cocaine and methamphetamine typically have effects opposite from those of opiates, including rapid speech, increased respiration, and pupil dilation (mydriasis). LSD patients do not seem lethargic or sedated and also go through mydriasis.
31
What is the Schachter-Singer theory?
Similiar body responses may be interpreted as different emotions based on the scenario the response was stimulated by. Such as positive or negative anxiety.
32
What is the James-Lange theory?
Emotions are not directly caused by perception but by bodily responses to stimuli and does NOT account for stimuli.
33
What is the Universal Emotions theory?
certain emotions (sadness, happiness, anger, surprise, fear, and disgust) are universal for all people across all cultures, assuming normal development has occurred.
34
What is the Cannon-Bard theory?
that stimulating events trigger feelings and physical reactions that occur at the same time. Independent of each other.
35
What is ambivalent racism?
This can occur when a white individual expresses overwhelmingly favorable views towards a black person in a positive environment, but then expresses overwhelmingly unfavorable views towards a black person in a negative environment
36
What is Symbolic racism?
Individuals that display symbolic racism assert that discrimination against blacks no longer occurs in America and there is no inequality between blacks and whites anymore; therefore, differences between outcomes for whites and blacks are a result of “black people not working hard enough.”
37
What is Modern racism?
Individuals who display modern racism believe that blacks violate “traditional American values” and, instead of working hard to achieve their status, look for preferential treatment. Modern racists deny that discrimination against blacks still exists and resent blacks for gaining preferential treatment over whites.
38
What is collectivism?
the practice or principle of giving a group priority over each individual in it
39
What is Egalitarianism?
the doctrine that all people are equal and deserve equal rights and opportunities.
40
What is Liberalism?
is a political and moral philosophy based on liberty, consent of the governed and equality before the law.
41
What is Ambivalent Sexism?
Ambivalent sexism occurs when men strongly value the patriarchal society and their important roles in it, while at the same time acknowledging that women do serve many valuable "feminine" functions in that society
42
What is Feminism?
Feminism is a social movement that advocates women's rights and their political, social, and economic equality with men
43
What is hostile sexism?
refers to blatantly negative attitudes and feelings about women
44
What is old fashioned sexism?
does not acknowledge any roles for women apart from the domestic role and views women as inherently inferior to men
45
What is procedural bias?
how information is obtained and may occur when researchers put some sort of pressure on subjects to provide responses. By offering monetary compensation of any amount to subjects, researchers used incentive to obtain results
46
What is Self-reporting bias?
when subjects skew their responses, often to impress or appease researchers.
47
What is Selection bias?
arises when the sample is not representative of the population. Such as not doing a random sampling.
48
What is Confirmation bias?
occurs when individuals actively seek out information that confirms their hypotheses or beliefs
49
What is a reference group?
includes those individuals who set the standard against which others may be measured; other groups are compared with the reference group.
50
What is an out group?
denotes a social group to which individuals do not believe they belong; its members are perceived as different and may be discriminated against or excluded
51
What is an in group?
individuals believe that they belong to their respective in-groups and tend to take pride in this membership
52
What is overgeneralization?
when an individual comes to a conclusion based on one episode or bit of evidence. In this scenario, the subject has recently experienced a single episode of insomnia and consequently believes he or she is prone to suffering from it in the future
53
What is self-actualization?
involves the maintaining of a positive worldview that enables the individual to reach his or her fullest potential
54
What is a self-fulfilling prophecy?
occurs when a prediction comes true because it is believed to be true and thus inspires behavior, attitudes, etc. that bring about its own realization
55
What is the Pygmalion effect?
is closely related to the self-fulfilling prophecy; the terms are often considered synonymous. Other's expectations of another influence their performance.
56
What stage of sleep are theta waves apart of?
Theta waves characterize the lighter sleep associated with stages 1 and 2, and also occur during REM sleep
57
What stage of sleep are delta waves a part of?
Delta waves are the slow, high amplitude brain waves associated with the deep sleep that characterizes stages 3 and 4. Often sleepwalking and night terrors occur during this state.
58
What stage of sleep are alpha waves a part of?
Associated with waking state, lucid calm, relaxed, not thinking.
59
What stage of sleep are beta waves a part of?
Awake, normal, alert, conscious
60
What is Aversion therapy?
Aversion therapy entails pairing an undesirable or unwanted behavior (e.g., taking a sip of an alcoholic beverage) with an unpleasant stimulus (e.g., a mild electric shock)
61
What is Psychoanalysis?
Psychoanalysis is aimed at resolving deep-seated psychic conflicts
62
What is Emile Durkheim’s functionalism?
Functionalism discourages people from changing the status quo because this theory emphasizes the idea of stability through the universal agreement to abide by the norms of society. Functionalism focuses on society as a whole rather than on the individual aspects of society. Organic solidarity is an idea within functionalism that parallels society to an organism. Functionalists believe that if one part of the system changes, then the rest of the system will have to adjust to the dysfunction until social stability can be restored.
63
What is Noam Chomsky’s hypothesis that children are born with a universal grammar?
that all languages contain similar structures and rules (a universal grammar), and the fact that children everywhere acquire language the same way, and without much effort, seems to indicate that we're born wired with the basics already present in our brains
64
What is the function of the Hippocampus?
part of the limbic system, which helps with memory storage and retrieval. In particular, the hippocampus is associated with the conversion of short-term memory into long-term memory
65
What is the function of the hypothalamus?
responsible for controlling homeostatic endpoints (heart rate, body temperature, etc.) and many aspects of the endocrine system
66
What is the function of the cerebellum?
primarily associated with the smoothing and coordination of movement
67
What is the function of the parietal lobe?
is involved with somatosensory processing. involves sensation and perception and the other is concerned with integrating sensory input, primarily with the visual system. The first function integrates sensory information to form a single perception (cognition).
68
What is the dependent variable?
The effect one wants to observe in an experiment is always considered the dependent variable
69
What is the independent variable?
The factors that the researcher controls and manipulates are always considered the independent variables
70
What is the fundamental attribution error?
The tendency to discount situational attributions in favor of dispositional attributions when considering others' behavior is called the fundamental attribution error
71
What is the negativity bias?
a tendency to attend to negative information, but does not deal with attributing behavior to situational or dispositional sources
72
What is self-fulfilling prophecy?
is an expectation about a situation that elicits behaviors that either directly or indirectly cause that expectation to be realized
73
What is the bystander effect?
describes the tendency of individuals to fail to assist a victim when others are present
74
What is internal validity?
is a measure of how likely it is that its results can be attributed to the experimental manipulation, rather than to other causes.
75
What is external validity?
External validity is the validity of applying the conclusions of a scientific study outside the context of that study. In other words, it is the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to and across other situations, people, stimuli, and times.
76
What is experimenter bias?
occurs when a researcher’s expectations about the results of the study influence the outcome of the study.
77
What is Bandura’s social cognitive theory?
individuals acquire knowledge by observing others. Also known as social learning.
78
What is deindividuation?
is a process by which individuals lose their sense of self when they are in groups
79
What is Social loafing?
describes a phenomenon in which individuals exert less effort when working as part of a group
80
What is Groupthink?
describes a phenomenon in which individuals in a group strive for a harmonious consensus, sometimes leading to poor decisions
81
What is Gender differentiation?
“Gender differentiation” is a social construct that includes social differences, value/attitude differences, and cultural differences. Biological differences are a part of sex differentiation, not gender differentiation
82
What is Attribution theory?
describes what occurs when an individual tries to identify the causes underlying the behaviors and performances of others
83
What is stereotype threat?
describes the way an individual’s performance is affected by the discomfort of being labeled with a certain stereotype
84
What is self-fulfilling prophecy?
occurs when a person behaves in a way that fulfills people’s expectations about him or her
85
What is social exclusion?
involves deprivation of rights and opportunities that are normally given to members of a society
86
What is socialization?
is the process by which individuals learn the norms, roles, customs and values of the social group to which they belong
87
What is social facilitation?
is the phenomenon whereby an individual’s performance is enhanced when he or she is surrounded by a group of people
88
What is social support?
is the tangible and intangible resources that an individual receives from his or her social network
89
What are signs of disorganized schizophrenia?
Social isolation, clumsy movement, and hallucinations
90
What are signs of manic depression?
Poor judgment, inappropriate social behavior, and insomnia
91
What are signs of social phobia?
Nausea, hot flashes, and shortness of breath when facing social interaction
92
What are signs of alcoholism?
Losing interest in activities, having problems with relationships and work due to alcohol, and feeling a constant need to drink
93
What is ethnocentrism?
involves using the values of one's own culture as the standard by which to judge others
94
What is cultural relativism?
cultural relativism involves viewing someone's beliefs and customs in terms of that person’s social context
95
What is prejudice?
is a preconceived opinion about another person,
96
What is discrimination?
discrimination occurs when someone takes unjust action based on a prejudiced belief.
97
What are signs of schizoid personality disorder?
are indifferent, aloof, withdrawn, and often preoccupied with fantasy and/or excessive daydreaming
98
What are signs of antisocial personality disorder?
a deceitful attitude and show no remorse when abusing others
99
What are signs of histrionic personality disorder?
tend to be overly dramatic and expressive with a heightened need to be the center of attention
100
What are signs of avoidant personality disorder?
like those with schizoid personality disorder, are socially withdrawn. However, people with avoidant personality disorder are withdrawn due to hypersensitivity to rejection rather than to indifference
101
What is the just noticeable difference (or JND)?
comes from the study of sensation and refers to the amount of difference in stimulus intensity required for human senses to detect the change
102
What is the foot-in-the-door technique?
asserts that if a person agrees to something small first, he or she is more likely to agree to something larger later
103
What is The Elaboration Likelihood Model?
is a theory of persuasion and gives guidance on how to present information depending on how the audience might listen to, and engage with, the material presented
104
What is the door-in-the-face technique?
describes how one can get an individual to agree to something by first requesting something far more difficult or costly. This makes the second request appear much more reasonable and increases the likelihood that the individual will agree
105
What is the Formal Operational stage of Piagetian cognitive development?
The use of abstract reasoning and logic emerges during the formal operational stage, which begins around the age of 11. Adolescents who reach this fourth stage of intellectual development are able to logically use symbols related to abstract concepts, as in algebra and science. They can think about multiple variables in systematic ways, formulate hypotheses, and consider possibilities. They can also ponder abstract relationships, as well as abstract concepts such as justice
106
What is the Preoperational stage of Piagetian cognitive development?
The key feature of the preoperational stage (which occurs around the ages of 2 to 7) is egocentrism. During this stage, children are able to think about things symbolically. Their language becomes more mature and they develop memory and imagination, which allows them to understand the difference between past and future and to engage in make-believe. However, their thinking is based on intuition and still not completely logical; they cannot yet grasp more complex concepts such as cause and effect, time, and comparison
107
What is the Concrete operational stage of Piagetian cognitive development?
At the concrete operational stage (which occurs around ages 7 to 11), children’s thinking becomes less egocentric and they are increasingly aware of external events. Children develop operational thinking, but still cannot tackle a problem with several variables in a systematic way
108
What is the Sensorimotor stage of Piagetian cognitive development?
The sensorimotor stage occurs during the first two years of life. Infants initially are only aware of what is immediately in front of them. They are constantly experimenting with objects, using their senses to familiarize themselves with the world (e.g., by putting things in their mouths), and learning about the world through trial and error
109
What is sensory adaptation?
sensory neurons react less and less to an unchanging stimulus, and this process is called sensory adaptation
110
What is sensory deprivation?
Sensory deprivation involves removal of stimuli from the senses
111
What is the symbolic interaction theory?
the symbolic interaction theory examines the use of symbolic meanings in social interaction
112
What is conflict theory?
describe methods of producing and maintaining social order. The conflict theory focuses on the influence of political and economic power,
113
What is the functionalist theory?
the functionalist theory focuses on contributions to social stability
114
What is the critical theory?
The critical theory is a less traditional theory in that it focuses on changing, rather than understanding, society
115
What is Acculturation?
refers to the process of adopting elements of one’s new host culture that differ from one’s native culture. The more differences that exist between one’s culture and that of other groups, the more difficult the acculturation process. In contrast, when one can identify with existing groups who have already engaged in the acculturation process, the more smoothly one’s personal acculturation develops
116
What is out-group homogeneity?
A mistaken assumption that all members of a group other than one’s own are similar to each other when, in fact, they are not,
117
What is stereotype lift?
involves positive stereotypes that actually result in someone performing better than they otherwise would have.
118
Helms’s immersion- emersion stage
Black individuals hold anti-White, pro-Black beliefs, which is thus consistent with social identity theory
119
Helm's pre encounter stage
In the preencounter stage, Blacks hold pro-White, anti-Black beliefs
120
Helm's encounter stage
in the encounter stage, they experience confusion
121
What is Marcia’s ego identity model?
The psychologist James Marcia suggested that there are four identity statuses, or stages, in developing who we are as individuals. These stages are achievement, moratorium, foreclosure, and diffusion
122
What is generalization?
refers to the process by which stimuli other than the originally conditioned stimulus begin to elicit a response.
123
What is discrimination? (stimulus)
if your dog only reacts when you put on your boots, and not when you put on any other pair of shoes, then she has learned to discriminate that stimulus
124
What is motor function attributed to?
Motor function is most often associated with the primary motor cortex in the frontal lobe
125
What is visual processing associated with?
Visual processing is associated with the occipital lobe
126
What is executive function associated with?
Frontal lobe
127
What is memory attributed to?
Hippocampus
128
What is Gestalt Psychology?
we are in fact likely to perceive a three-dimensional object rather than a bunch of lines and shapes; a fundamental element of Gestalt is the idea that our brains will perceive objects in certain ways because of higher-level processing and organization of sensory information. Another fundamental Gestalt element is the idea that our brains can easily “flip” back and forth between two options for an ambiguous image
