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Year 2 - LCRS > Psychology > Flashcards

Psychology Flashcards

1
Q

What is sunk cost fallacy?

A

Rationally the only factor affecting future action should be the future costs/benefit ratio but humans do not always act rationally and often the more we have invested in the past the more we are prepared to invest in a problem in the future.

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2
Q

What is Group think and what are the conditions for it?

A

The tendency of group members to suspend critical thinking because they are striving to seek agreement. Influencing factors: Most likely to occur when a group: Is under high stress to reach a decision, Is insulated from outside input, Has a directive leader, Has high cohesiveness.

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3
Q

What parameters make the conditioning strongest

A

CS-UCS is repeated UCS is more intense Sequence involves forward pairing(i.e. CS->UCS) Time interval between CS-UCS is short

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4
Q

What is what is the difference between primary and secondary positive reinforcement

A

Primary = a reward requires the survival e.g. food Sec

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5
Q

What is what is the difference between primary and secondary positive reinforcement

A

Primary = a reward requires the survival e.g. food Secondary = positive properties through association with a primary reinforcer

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6
Q

What is negative reinforcement?

A

What response is strengthened by the removal of an aversive stimulus

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7
Q

What is more powerful reinforcement or punishment?

A

Skinner - reinforcement

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8
Q

What is social learning

A

Occurs by watching and imitating actions of another person, or by noting consequences of a person’s actions -Occurs before direct practice is allowed -To be successful, requires 1.attention, 2.retention 3.production 4.motivation Bandura - Bobo doll

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9
Q

With regards to the Health beliefs model (rosenstock’s) what feeds into the perceived threat ?

A

Background

Perceived susceptibility/Perceived seriousness

Cues to action

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10
Q

With regards to the Health beliefs model (rosenstock’s) what feeds into the likeyhood of behavioural changr ?

A

Perceived benefit vs perceived costs/barriers

and

Perceived threat

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11
Q

With regards to the Health beliefs model what further beliefs did Bandura later add to Rosenstocks model?

A

Self efficacy beliefs
Outcome efficacy -Will behaviour equal outcome

Self efficacy-Believe that one can execute behaviour required for the outcome

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12
Q

What is self efficacy and what factors affect this?

A

Self efficacy is the belief that one can execute behaviour required outcome

  1. Mastery experience
  2. Social learning
  3. Verbal persuasion/ encouragement
  4. Physiological arousal
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13
Q

Theory of planned behaviour

A
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14
Q

What is the trans-theoretical model and what are the stages of it?

A

Pre-contemplation ⇒ contemplation ⇒ preparation ⇒ action ⇒ maintenance ⇒ relapse ⇒ contemplation

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15
Q

What is the difference between top-down and bottom-up procesing?

A

Bottom up: detect individual stimulus -> interpret as a whole

Top down: Expectation ⇒ Guide, analysis ⇒ interpretation

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16
Q

What are Gestalt laws

A

Champion top-down processing i.e. the sum of the parts is more than whole

  1. Figure ground relations. Our tendency to organise stimuli into central, foreground and background
  2. Continuity
  3. Similarity
  4. Proximity
  5. Closure
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17
Q

What is visual agnosia

A

Associated with bilateral lesions to occipital, occipito-temporal or occipito-parietal lobes. Vision is spared primary cortex is intact but can’t recognise objects by sight

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18
Q

What is aperceptive agnosia

A

Individual elements are perceived normally that cannot be organised into a whole

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19
Q

What is associative agnosia?

A

Failure to retrieve semantic information. Shape, colour, texture, or perceived normally typically sensory specific i.e. If the patient touches an object they can recognise it.

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20
Q

What factors affect perception of physical symptoms?

A

Attention

Expectation

Emotion

Environmental cues

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21
Q

What are the big five personality traits?

A
  1. Openness - (Imaginative, creative, original and curious)
  2. Conscientiousness - (Hard-working, well-organised, punctual)
  3. Extraversion - (Joiner, talkative, active, affectionate)
  4. Agreeableness - (Trusting, lenient, soft-hearted, good-natured)
  5. Neuroticism - (emotional instability)
    (Worried, temperamental, self-conscious, emotional)
    Ocean
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22
Q

Of the big five personality traits which, if any, have links to health behaviour?

A

Openness - no link

Conscientiousness - + two years life expectancy. More health conscious lifestyle

Extraversion - decreased levels of CHD and protective of respiratory disease

Agreeableness - hostility is associated with increased risk of CHD

Neuroticism - increased prevalence of smoking/alcohol use

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23
Q

What is meant by reciprocal determinism?

A

The person’s behaviour both influences and is influenced by personal factors and social environment

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24
Q

What is the critical period of language

A

Ease of Learning languages decreases 3-8 years

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25
Q

In which hemisphere is language dominance for right-handed people

A

Left hemisphere dominance

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26
Q

In which hemisphere is language dominance for left-handed people

A
  1. 8% Show right-hemisphere dominance
  2. 8% have bilateral language function
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27
Q

What is Broca’s aphasia

A

Broca’s Area is important for speech production

Aphasia leads to:
Non-fluent speech
Impaired repetition
Poor ability to produce syntactically correct sentences

Intact comprehension

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28
Q

What is Wernicke’s area and what is it important for?

A

In the posterior temporo-parietal area this.

Fluent but meaningless speech
Problems comprehending speech

Semantic paraphasia (substituting words with similar meanings)
Phonemic paraphasia (substituting words with similar sounds)
Neologisms (nonwords)
Poor repetition
Impairment in writing

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29
Q

What connects Broca’s and Wernicke’s ? And what results if this is damaged?

A

Arcuate Fasciculus.

Conduction aphasia. Understand but can’t repeat

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30
Q

What is dis-executive syndrome

A

Disruption of executive function closely related to frontal lobe damage but many causes. Think Phineas Gage

Inability to plan, self regulate, goal directed behaviour, attentional problems, disinhibition, reduced empathy, impulsiveness, difficulty coping with normal situations

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31
Q

What is attachment?

A

The instinct that seeks proximity to an attachment figure i.e. Carer

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32
Q

How do you assess a child’s attachment

A

Ainsworth’s strange situation test.

Tests how babies or young children respond to the temporary absence of their mothers.

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33
Q

What is temperament?

A

Unique aspects of an individual’s personality such as introversion/ extraversion

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34
Q

What is reciprocal socialisation?

A

Socialisation is bidirectional therefore children socialise parents just as much as parents socialise children

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35
Q

What are these different types of attachment?

A
  1. Secure attachment
    Free exploration and happiness on mothers return
  2. Insecure attachment
    Little exploration and little emotional response to the mothers return
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36
Q

What are the three subtypes of insecure attachment?

A
  1. Avoidant insecure children
    Little exploration and little emotional response to mother
  2. Resistant insecure(Ambivalent)
    Little exploratio, great separation anxiety, and ambivalent response to the mothers return
  3. Disorganised insecure child
    Little exploration and confused response to mother
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37
Q

What is Piaget’s model of cognitive development?

A
  1. Sensorimotor stage (infants - 2years)
    Sense understand the world primarily through sensory experiences and physical interactions with objects
  2. Preoperational stage (2-7yrs)
    World is represented symbolically through words mental images. No understanding of the principle of conservation.
    - ie. Basic properties remain the same even though their outward appearance may change
    - Egocentrism - difficulty viewing the world from someone else’s perspective
  3. Concrete operational stage(7-12years)
    Children can perform basic mental operations concerning tangible objects and situations but still trouble with hypothetical abstract reasoning
38
Q
A
39
Q

What are Kubler-Ross’ Stage theory’s five reactions to facing death?

A
  1. Denial
  2. Anger
  3. Bargaining
  4. Depression
  5. Acceptance
40
Q

What are Leventhal’s five dimensions of illness representation and what is this used for ?

A

How people conceptualise their illness

Identity - “I have a cold”

Cause - “I was rundown”

Consequence - “I can’t go to work”

Timeline - “I will be better in a few days”

Curability - “if I rest my cold will go”

41
Q

What are the five myths of coping with loss?

A
  1. Distress/depression is not inevitable (consider post-traumatic growth)
  2. Failure to experience distress is not indicative of pathology
  3. “acceptance” might not be achieved.
  4. “good” patients achieve acceptance vs “bad” patients stay angry
42
Q

What is the Weschler test WAIS?

A

an IQ test designed to measure intelligence and cognitive ability in adults. Currently in 4th edition WAIS - IV. The most commonly used IQ test

43
Q

What is the definition of intelligence?

A

Intelligence Quotient = (mental age/chronological age) x 100

A score of 100 is average

44
Q

What is the difference between crystallised vs fluid intelligence?

A
  • Crystallized intelligence: the ability to apply previously acquired knowledge to current problems. Will commonly improve with age then stabilise
  • Fluid intelligence: the ability to deal with novel problem-solving situations for which personal experience does not provide a solution. Shows steady pattern of declining in aging
45
Q

Outline Baron Cohen’s Epathising/systemising theory

A

Empathising - able to infer thoughts or feelings of others and have an approproate reaction

Systematising - Drive to analyse or construct any kind of system

46
Q

What are the 2 types of information that can be given to patients?

A

1) Procedural information
2) Sensory informatino

47
Q
A
48
Q

What is the Transactional definition of stress

A

Stress is a condition that results when the person / environment transactions lead the individual to perceive a discrepancy between the demands of the situation and the coping resources available.

49
Q

What is the dual hypothesis of information giving to patients

A

First sensory and procedural information are useful in different manners. Procedural information allows the patient to match events with expectations in a non-emotional manner. Sensory information maps a nonthreatening interpretation onto these expectations

50
Q

Define and give examples of a problem focused coping

A

Definition; efforts directed at changing the environment in some way or changing one’s actions attitudes

Examples; seeking health information, Learning procedures, changing behaviour

51
Q

Define and give examples of a emotion focused coping

A

Definition; efforts designed to manage stress related emotional responses in order to maintain one’s own morale and allow one to function

Examples; meditation, Relaxation techniques, Distraction, Praying

52
Q

What strategies can be used to help children cope with treatment?

A
  • Distraction is most effective with small children
  • For ages 9+ matching coping strategy with the child as with adults is best
  • Age 7+ give info 5 to 7 days before, younger children benefit from info closer to the time

Combined approach

  1. Tell
  2. Show
  3. Do. Don’t start procedure procedure until the child understands what will be done
53
Q

What factors influence conformity?

A

Group size - increasing the conformity with group size up to 5 members(no further increased after that)

Presence of a dissenter - one person disagreeing greatly reduces conformity

Culture greater conformity in collectivist cultures

54
Q

What factors influence the obedience oh subject?

A
  • Remoteness of the victim
  • Closeness and legitimacy of the authority figure
  • Diffusion of responsibility; obedience increases when someone else does the dirty work/takes the blame
  • Not personal characteristics
55
Q

What factors cause social loafing to be more likely?

A
  • Person believes that individual performances not monitored
  • The task has less value to the person
  • The person displays low motivation to strive success
  • The person expects other members will display high effort

Occurs more strongly in all-male groups

Occurs more often in individualistic cultures

56
Q

What is Group polarisation?

A

Tendency of people to make decisions that are more extreme when they’re in a group as opposed to decision made alone

57
Q

What factors influence groupthink?

A

More likely to occur when a group;

  • Is under high stress to reach a decision
  • Is insulated from outside input
  • Has a directive leader
  • has high cohesiveness
    *
58
Q

What is the Bystander Effect?

A

Presence of multiple bystanders inhibits each person’s tendency to help
- Due to social comparison or diffusion of responsibility

59
Q

What is the 5-step Bystander Decision Process?

(Latané and Darley 1970)

A
  1. Notice the event
  2. Decide if the event is really an emergency
    Social comparison: look to see how others are responding
  3. Assuming responsibility to intervene
    Diffusion of responsibility: believing that someone else will help)
  4. Self-efficacy in dealing with the situation
  5. Decision to help (based on cost-benefit analysis e.g. danger
60
Q

What are the different leadership styles?

A
  • Autocratic or authoritarian style
  • Participative or democratic style
  • Laissez-faire or “free rein” style
61
Q

What is confirmatory bias?

A

The tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms one’s preconceptions, often leading to errors

62
Q

What is the gambler’s fallacy?

A

The mistaken belief that past events will affect future events when dealing with independent events.
- In clinical situations it could encompass a belief that is one patient in a clinic presents with a rare condition it would be impossible for the next patient to present with the very same condition

63
Q

What is the representative heuristic?

A

Subjective probability that a stimulus belongs to a particular class are based on how to her of that class it appears to be

64
Q

What is the availability heuristic?

A

Probabilities are estimated on the basis of how easily/vividly they can be called to mind

  • Individuals typically overestimate the frequency of occurrence of catastrophic, dramatic events (e.g. 80% believe accidents cause more deaths than strokes)
  • People tend to heavily weigh their judgements toward more recent information
65
Q

How can decision making be improved?

A
  1. Teach about cognitive error
  2. Recognise that biases may be affecting judgement
  3. Increase feedback
  4. Generate alternative theories i.e. Always have a differential diagnosis
  5. Understand statistics
66
Q

What are the stages of memory process?

A
  • *Registration** - input from the senses
  • *Encoding -** processing and combining of received information
  • *Storage** - holding of the input in the memory system
  • *Retrieval** -is Recovering stored information from the memory system
67
Q
A
68
Q

What are the 3 missing components of Baddeley’s working memory model?

A
69
Q

In Baddeley’s working memory model what is the role of the central executive ?

A
  • Manipulation attention
  • Suppression of irrelevant information
  • Coordination of multiple tasks
70
Q

In Baddeley’s working memory model what is the role of the visuospatial sketch pad?

A

Visual and spatial info

Mental maps

71
Q

In Baddeley’s working memory model what is the role of the Phonological loop?

A

Auditory / verbal info

Prevent decay by silently articulating the contents in a loop

72
Q

What are the different types of retrieval from long term memory?

A
  • *Declarative (conscious)**
  • Episodic (biographical events)
  • Semantic (words, ideas, concepts)
  • *Implicit/non-declarative (unconscious)**
  • Procedural (skills)
  • Emotional conditioning (eg fear of spiders)
  • Priming effect (stereotypes)
  • Conditioned reflex (don’t touch something hot)
73
Q

What are the different methods for committing information to memory? What is most effective?

A
  1. Rote
  2. Assimilation
    - Fitting new information into existing schema(s)
  3. Mnemonic device
  4. Move your body
74
Q

What is the PQRST method for committing information to memory?

A

P = Preview
- the information to learn
Q = Question
- write down the questions that you want to be able to answer once finished
R = Read
- through information that best relates to questions you want to answer
S = Summary
- summarise the information by writing, diagrams, mnemonics, voice recording
T = Test
- try to answer the questions

75
Q

What is the definition of non-compliance?

A

When a person’s behaviour does not correspond with the agreed recommendations from a health care provider.

76
Q

What are the causes of unintentinal non-compliance?

A
  • *Unintentional non-adherence**
  • Patient ability and resources
  • Practical patient barriers to adherence
  • Cognitive difficulties
  • Poor Comms
77
Q

What are the causes of intentinal non-compliance?

A

Intentional non-adherence
*- Patient beliefs about illness (cause timeline)*
- COst of therapy
​- Worries about side effects of treatment
- Perceived ecessity
- Perceived drug efficacy

78
Q

What factors affect recall of healthcare information ?

A

ANXIETY
​MEDICAL KNOWLEDGE

MENTAL IMPAIRMENT

79
Q

What presentation factors affect recall of healthcare information ?

A

Amount of information

Order

Stressing importance

Specificity

Mode of presentation

Follow-up

80
Q

How can adherence to treatment be improved?

A
  • Improved information provision
  • shared decision making -> esp. in chronic conditions
  • Monitoring
  • planning and repeating
  • follow up
  • cognitive techniques
  • socail sipport
  • identify and modify beliefs
81
Q
A
82
Q

What is the percentage recall of the following information?

  1. Diagnostic statements
  2. Information regar
A
  1. Diagnostic statements - 87%
  2. Information regarding illness - 56%
  3. Instructions - 44%
83
Q

What is the General Adaptation Syndrome? (Selye, 1956)

A

Stage 1: Alarm reaction
- The shift to sympathetic dominance causes increased arousal
Stage 2: Resistance
- The endocrine system releases stress hormones to maintain increased arousal
Stage 3: Exhaustion
- The adrenal glands lose their ability to function normally

84
Q

What is the pathways from stress to disease?

A

Events
↓
Stress
↙︎ ↘︎
Behavioural Physiological
Changes Changes
↘︎ ↙︎
Disease

85
Q

What is type A behaviour? What effect does this personality type have on CHD?

A
  • Time urgency
  • Free-floating hostility
  • Hyper-aggressiveness
  • Focus on accomplishment
  • Competitive and goal-driven
    When compared to type B, type A individuals had a 31% increase in risk of CHD
86
Q

What is the placebo effect?

A

treatment can be effective even if it contains no active ingredients

87
Q

What is exposure therapy?

A

Treat phobias throgh exposure to the feared CS in the absence of the UCS. Sytematic desensitization

88
Q

WHat is the cognitive model of panic disorder?

A
89
Q

what is the idea behind CBT?

A
  1. Identify the nature of the thoughts (they don’t have to be true to affect emotions)
  2. Learn the common biases
  3. Treat the thoughs as guesses/hypothesis about the world

Though -> Behaviour -> Emotion

90
Q

What would CBT for cardiac anxiety be comprised of?

A
  • Psychoeducation
  • Relaxation techniques
  • Cognitive restructuring
  • Behavioural experiments
  • Graded exposure
  • Relapse prevention
91
Q

According to NICE guidlelines what is CBT recommended as first line treatment for?

A
  • Depression
  • Social anxiety
  • PTSD
  • Generalised anxiety disorder
  • OCD
  • Bulimia
  • Panic disorder and specific phobia
  • Schizophrenia

Year 2 - LCRS (9 decks)

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