Psychology

Question 1

Differences between sensation and perception

Answer 1

• Sensation: Process of detecting the presence of stimuli by sensory organs
• Perception: Recognition, integration and interpretation of raw sensory information/stimuli

Question 2

Define classical and operant conditioning

Answer 2

Classical conditioning: learning by association
Operant conditioning: learning by consequences

Question 3

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

Answer 3

Something that reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction in an organism. E.g. salivation in response to seeing/ eating food

Question 4

Unconditioned response (UR)

Answer 4

A reflexive reaction that is reliably elicited by an unconditioned stimulus.

Question 5

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Answer 5

A stimulus that at first does not produce the response that is eventually conditioned by pairing with an unconditioned stimulus. E.g ringing a bell before food so dog knows its food time

Question 6

Conditioned response (CR)

Answer 6

A reaction to a conditioned stimulus produced by pairing it with an unconditioned stimulus.

Question 7

What us operant conditioning based on

Answer 7

The law of Effect: Behaviours that are followed by a ‘satisfying state of affairs’ tend to be repeated and those that produce an ‘unpleasant state of affairs’ are less to be repeated.

Question 8

Reinforcer

Answer 8

Any stimulus that increases the likelihood of the behaviour

Question 9

Distinguish between positive and negative reinforcement

Answer 9

• Positive reinforcement: encourages a behaviour by linking it to positive consequences (e.g. continuing to go to the gym because people have been complimenting you on your appearance).
• Negative reinforcement: encourages a behaviour by removing unwanted experiences (e.g. medication adherence because it reduces pain).

Question 10

Definition of punishment

Answer 10

Punishment: Any stimulus that decreases the likelihood of the behaviour

Question 11

Distinguish between negative and positive punishment

Answer 11

• Positive punishment: discourages behaviour by linking it to unwanted experiences (e.g., Stopping drinking because it leads to bad hangover)
• Negative punishment: discourages behaviour by linking it to the removal of something that is wanted (e.g., taking favorite toy away from misbehaving child)

Question 12

Examples of conditioning in clinical practice

Answer 12

Operant conditioning: Encouraging healthy eating
• Rewarding healthy eating behaviours through positive reinforcement, e.g.
• Praise (“You ate all your vegetables – what a good boy!”)
• Tokens/gifts/prizes (Gold star for each vegetable eaten, 10 gold stars

Classical conditioning: Taste aversion learning/Aversion therapy
• Cancer patients often develop aversion to foods encountered during chemotherapy
• The drug Antabuse induces sickness when consumed with alcohol – develop aversion.

• Harne- Britner et al. (2011) - Healthcare workers’ hand-hygiene improved using positive reinforcement through a sticker reward scheme.
• Increased taxes on cigarettes and alcohol
• Paying pregnant women to give up smoking
• Exposure therapies for phobia