Psychology

Question 1

What are the key steps of classical conditioning?

Answer 1

1. Acquisition: The initial phase where the neutral stimulus (NS) is paired with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to produce the unconditioned response (UCR).
2. Reinforcement: Over time, the NS becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicits the conditioned response (CR). Example: pairing a bell (NS) with food (UCS) to make a dog salivate (UCR).
3. Extinction: The process where the conditioned response (CR) decreases or disappears when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). Example: if the bell (CS) is rung repeatedly without presenting food (UCS), the dog will eventually stop salivating (CR).
4. Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of the conditioned response (CR) after a period of rest and no further conditioning. Even after extinction, the CR can suddenly reoccur when the CS is presented again. Example: the dog might start salivating again to the bell after a break, even if no food is presented.

Question 2

Explain the process of operant conditioning.

Answer 2

1. Learning by consequences.
2. Involves reinforcement (positive and negative) and punishment.
3. Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behaviour.
4. Punishment decreases the likelihood of a behaviour.
5. Examples include reward systems and avoidance learning.

Question 3

Describe the types of memory according to the Multi-Store Model.

Answer 3

1. Sensory memory: very brief storage of sensory information.
2. Short-term memory: temporary storage for immediate use.
3. Long-term memory: extensive storage for information over time.
4. Encoding processes information for storage.
5. Retrieval processes information for recall.

Question 4

What are the effects of aging on cognitive function?

Answer 4

1. Decline in speed of processing. 2. Reduced working memory capacity. 3. Greater difficulty in multitasking. 4. Retained or improved vocabulary and general knowledge. 5. Variability among individuals in the extent of decline.

Question 5

Discuss the concept of cognitive dissonance.

Answer 5

1. Psychological tension from conflicting beliefs and behaviours. 2. Motivates individuals to reduce discomfort. 3. Can be resolved by changing beliefs or behaviours. 4. Influences decision-making and attitude changes. 5. Example: smoker rationalizing smoking despite knowing its risks.

Question 6

What is the biopsychosocial model of health?

Answer 6

1. Considers biological, psychological, and social factors. 2. Integrates multiple influences on health and illness. 3. Opposes the reductionist biomedical model. 4. Emphasizes holistic treatment approaches. 5. Supports the idea that mind and body are interconnected.

Question 7

Explain the role of physical activity in mental health.

Answer 7

1. Reduces risk of depression and anxiety. 2. Enhances mood and overall well-being. 3. Improves cognitive function and memory. 4. Acts as a stress reliever and enhances sleep quality. 5. Provides opportunities for social interaction.

Question 8

What are the determinants of physical activity?

Answer 8

1. Individual factors: motivation, self-efficacy, health status. 2. Social factors: support from family and friends. 3. Environmental factors: access to facilities, safe spaces. 4. Policy factors: public health initiatives and programs. 5. Cultural factors: societal norms and values regarding fitness.

Question 9

Describe the health benefits of regular physical activity.

Answer 9

1. Reduces risk of chronic diseases (e.g., heart disease, diabetes). 2. Enhances cardiovascular and muscular fitness. 3. Helps in weight management and reduces obesity. 4. Improves mental health and mood. 5. Increases lifespan and improves quality of life.

Question 10

Discuss the impact of sleep on memory consolidation.

Answer 10

1. Sleep facilitates the transfer of information to long-term memory. 2. Enhances the consolidation of newly acquired information. 3. Sleep stages, especially REM sleep, play a crucial role. 4. Lack of sleep impairs memory retention and recall. 5. Sleep supports cognitive functions and learning processes.

Question 11

What are the barriers to physical activity?

Answer 11

1. Lack of time due to busy schedules. 2. Physical limitations or health conditions. 3. Lack of access to facilities or safe environments. 4. Low motivation or lack of interest. 5. Socioeconomic factors and lack of support.

Question 12

Explain the concept of learned helplessness.

Answer 12

1. Results from repeated exposure to uncontrollable events. 2. Leads to a belief that one cannot change their situation. 3. Associated with feelings of powerlessness and depression. 4. Demonstrated in experiments by Seligman with dogs. 5. Has implications for understanding human depression and motivation.

Question 13

What are the psychological impacts of chronic pain?

Answer 13

1. Can lead to depression and anxiety. 2. Affects quality of life and daily functioning. 3. Often results in sleep disturbances. 4. Can cause social isolation and relationship issues. 5. Requires comprehensive pain management approaches.

Question 14

Describe the role of social support in coping with stress.

Answer 14

1. Provides emotional comfort and reassurance.
2. Helps in problem-solving and decision-making.
3. Reduces feelings of isolation and loneliness.
4. Enhances self-esteem and confidence.
5. Can lead to better health outcomes and resilience.

Question 15

Discuss the stages of grief according to Kübler-Ross.

Answer 15

1. Denial: refusing to accept reality.
2. Anger: frustration and helplessness.
3. Bargaining: attempting to negotiate a way out.
4. Depression: deep sadness and despair.
5. Acceptance: coming to terms with the loss.

Question 16

What are the psychological effects of bereavement?

Answer 16

1. Intense emotions such as sadness and anger. 2. Changes in sleep and appetite. 3. Difficulty concentrating and making decisions. 4. Increased risk of depression and anxiety. 5. Potential for growth and finding new meaning over time.

Question 17

Explain the principles of systematic desensitisation.

Answer 17

1. Gradual exposure to the feared object or situation. 2. Starts with less threatening stimuli. 3. Incorporates relaxation techniques to manage anxiety. 4. Progresses to more direct exposure over time. 5. Effective for treating phobias and anxiety disorders.

Question 18

What are the main components of the Theory of Planned Behaviour?

Answer 18

1. Attitude towards the behaviour. 2. Subjective norms and perceived social pressure. 3. Perceived behavioural control and self-efficacy. 4. Intention to perform the behaviour. 5. Links intentions to actual behaviour changes.

Question 19

Describe the mechanisms of working memory.

Answer 19

1. Temporary storage for information in use. 2. Involves the central executive, phonological loop, and visuospatial sketchpad. 3. Limited capacity, typically around 7 ± 2 items. 4. Essential for tasks requiring manipulation of information. 5. Plays a key role in learning, reasoning, and comprehension.

Question 20

What are the factors that affect the ability to recall medical information?

Answer 20

1. Complexity and amount of information provided. 2. Patient’s level of anxiety and stress. 3. Use of medical jargon and technical terms. 4. Timing and context of the information delivery. 5. Patient’s cognitive abilities and memory function.

Question 21

Discuss the concept of state-dependent memory.

Answer 21

1. Memory retrieval is more effective in the same state as during encoding. 2. Can be influenced by mood, environment, or physiological state. 3. Explains why people recall information better when in a similar context. 4. Important for understanding memory recall in various settings. 5. Has implications for therapy and learning strategies.

Question 22

What are the psychological consequences of stress?

Answer 22

1. Increased risk of mental health disorders like anxiety and depression. 2. Physical health problems such as hypertension and heart disease. 3. Impaired cognitive functions like memory and concentration. 4. Negative impacts on sleep and appetite. 5. Reduced quality of life and well-being.

Question 23

Explain the concept of prospective memory.

Answer 23

1. Remembering to perform a planned action in the future. 2. Involves both event-based and time-based tasks. 3. Essential for daily functioning and goal-directed behaviour. 4. Can be affected by age and cognitive decline. 5. Strategies like reminders and cues can aid prospective memory.

Question 24

Describe the role of psychological interventions in pain management.

Answer 24

1. Cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) to change pain perception. 2. Relaxation techniques to reduce muscle tension and anxiety. 3. Mindfulness and meditation for pain acceptance. 4. Biofeedback to gain control over physiological functions. 5. Support groups and counselling for emotional support.

Question 25

Discuss the role of self-efficacy in health behaviour change.

Answer 25

1. Belief in one’s ability to succeed in specific situations. 2. Influences motivation and persistence. 3. Affects the choices people make and their effort levels. 4. High self-efficacy leads to better health outcomes. 5. Can be enhanced through mastery experiences and positive feedback.

Question 26

What are the factors influencing adherence to medical treatment?

Answer 26

1. Patient’s understanding of the treatment regimen. 2. Complexity and duration of the treatment. 3. Side effects and perceived effectiveness. 4. Support from healthcare providers and family. 5. Patient’s beliefs and attitudes towards the treatment.

Question 27

Explain the relationship between physical activity and cognitive function.

Answer 27

1. Physical activity enhances brain plasticity. 2. Increases blood flow and oxygen to the brain. 3. Improves memory and executive functions. 4. Reduces risk of cognitive decline and dementia. 5. Associated with better academic and work performance.

Question 28

Describe the role of emotion in decision-making.

Answer 28

1. Emotions influence the perception of risk and reward. 2. Can lead to biases and heuristics in thinking. 3. Affect the speed and outcome of decisions. 4. Integral to the formation of preferences and judgments. 5. Emotional regulation is crucial for balanced decision-making.

Question 29

Discuss the psychological factors involved in ageing.

Answer 29

1. Cognitive changes such as memory decline and slower processing speed. 2. Emotional changes including increased focus on positive information. 3. Social factors like retirement and loss of loved ones. 4. Impact of physical health on psychological well-being. 5. Strategies for promoting successful ageing.

Question 30

What are the benefits of reflective practice for healthcare professionals?

Answer 30

1. Enhances self-awareness and professional development. 2. Improves clinical decision-making and patient care. 3. Encourages lifelong learning and adaptability. 4. Helps in managing stress and building resilience. 5. Fosters a culture of continuous improvement.

Question 31

Explain the role of environmental factors in physical activity.

Answer 31

1. Access to recreational facilities and green spaces. 2. Safe neighbourhoods with good lighting and walkways. 3. Availability of public transport and infrastructure. 4. Social support and community engagement. 5. Urban planning and policies promoting active lifestyles.

Question 32

What are the key components of the Health Belief Model?

Answer 32

1. Perceived susceptibility to a health problem. 2. Perceived severity of the condition. 3. Perceived benefits of taking action. 4. Perceived barriers to taking action. 5. Cues to action and self-efficacy.

Question 33

Describe the process of encoding in memory.

Answer 33

1. Transforming sensory input into a form that can be stored. 2. Involves attention and focus on the information. 3. Can be influenced by depth of processing. 4. Includes semantic, visual, and acoustic encoding. 5. Enhanced by repetition and meaningful connections.

Question 34

Discuss the psychological theories of ageing.

Answer 34

1. Disengagement theory: withdrawal from social roles. 2. Activity theory: maintaining activity and engagement. 3. Continuity theory: preserving existing lifestyles. 4. Socioemotional selectivity theory: focusing on emotionally meaningful goals. 5. Lifespan developmental theory: ongoing growth and adaptation.

Question 35

Explain the impact of physical activity on cardiovascular health.

Answer 35

1. Reduces risk of heart disease and stroke. 2. Lowers blood pressure and cholesterol levels. 3. Improves heart and lung function. 4. Aids in weight management and reduces obesity. 5. Enhances overall cardiovascular endurance and strength.

Question 36

What are the key psychological aspects of visual perception?

Answer 36

1. Perception involves recognition, integration, and interpretation of sensory information. 2. Bottom-up processing is driven by physical characteristics of stimuli. 3. Top-down processing combines sensory data with psychological constructs like expectations. 4. Perception can be influenced by context, past experiences, and other sensory information. 5. Visual perception includes mechanisms like texture gradients and optic flow patterns.

Question 37

Explain the Health Belief Model.

Answer 37

1. Based on expectancy-value theory: belief in susceptibility and severity of a health issue. 2. Includes perceived benefits and barriers to taking action. 3. Self-efficacy plays a critical role in influencing behaviour. 4. Modifying factors such as age and knowledge can affect perceptions. 5. Cues to action, like illness of a family member, can prompt behaviour change.

Question 38

Discuss the Theory of Planned Behaviour.

Answer 38

1. Intentions are influenced by attitudes towards behaviour. 2. Subjective norms reflect perceived social pressure. 3. Perceived behavioural control represents the ease or difficulty of performing the behaviour. 4. Intentions lead to actual behaviour if perceived control is high. 5. Highlights the importance of social norms and perceived control in predicting behaviour.

Question 39

What is the Transtheoretical Model of behaviour change?

Answer 39

1. Involves stages: pre-contemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance. 2. Emphasizes the cyclical nature of behaviour change, including relapse. 3. Tailors interventions to the individual’s stage of change. 4. Highlights processes like self-reevaluation and stimulus control. 5. Useful for designing targeted health interventions.

Question 40

Describe the COM-B model for behaviour change.

Answer 40

1. Capability: psychological and physical ability to engage in a behaviour. 2. Opportunity: external factors that make the behaviour possible. 3. Motivation: brain processes that direct behaviour, including habitual and analytical decision-making. 4. Interventions can target one or more components to effect change. 5. Provides a comprehensive framework for designing behaviour change interventions.

Question 41

What are the physical consequences of obesity?

Answer 41

1. Increased risk of type 2 diabetes. 2. Higher likelihood of cardiovascular diseases. 3. Elevated risk of certain cancers (e.g., breast, colorectal). 4. Joint and mobility issues like osteoarthritis. 5. Impact on respiratory function and sleep apnea.

Question 42

Discuss the psychological impacts of obesity.

Answer 42

1. Lower self-esteem and body dissatisfaction. 2. Higher rates of depression and anxiety. 3. Social stigma and discrimination. 4. Negative impact on quality of life and social relationships. 5. Emotional eating and maladaptive coping mechanisms.

Question 43

Explain the environmental factors contributing to obesity.

Answer 43

1. Availability and accessibility of high-calorie, low-nutrient foods. 2. Sedentary lifestyle due to modern conveniences. 3. Marketing and advertising of unhealthy foods. 4. Lack of safe spaces for physical activity. 5. Socioeconomic factors influencing diet and activity levels.

Question 44

What are the common interventions for managing obesity?

Answer 44

1. Behavioural therapy, including cognitive-behavioural techniques. 2. Diet modification and nutritional counseling. 3. Physical activity programs and exercise routines. 4. Pharmacotherapy for weight loss. 5. Bariatric surgery for severe cases.

Question 45

Describe the psychological theories of eating behaviour.

Answer 45

1. Developmental models focus on early life experiences and parental influences. 2. Cognitive models emphasize beliefs, attitudes, and intentions. 3. Hedonic theories highlight the pleasure and reward aspects of eating. 4. Environmental models consider the role of food availability and advertising. 5. Biological models look at genetic and hormonal influences on eating.

Question 46

Discuss the concept of cognitive dissonance and its resolution.

Answer 46

1. Cognitive dissonance arises from conflicting beliefs and behaviours. 2. Creates psychological discomfort that motivates resolution. 3. Can be resolved by changing beliefs or behaviours. 4. Adding new cognitions to reconcile the conflict. 5. Ignoring or denying the dissonant information.

Question 47

What are the stages of grief according to Kübler-Ross?

Answer 47

1. Denial: refusing to accept the reality of loss. 2. Anger: feeling frustrated and helpless. 3. Bargaining: attempting to negotiate a way out. 4. Depression: experiencing deep sadness and despair. 5. Acceptance: coming to terms with the loss.

Question 48

Explain the concept of perceptual grouping.

Answer 48

1. The tendency to perceive objects as organized patterns. 2. Principles include similarity, proximity, and continuity. 3. Helps in simplifying the complex visual environment. 4. Example: grouping nearby objects together as a single unit. 5. Influences how we interpret and interact with our surroundings.

Question 49

Discuss the psychological and social consequences of obesity.

Answer 49

1. Social stigma and discrimination in various settings. 2. Lower educational attainment and career opportunities. 3. Impact on interpersonal relationships and marriage prospects. 4. Mental health issues like depression and anxiety. 5. Increased healthcare costs and burden on healthcare systems.

Question 50

Describe the historical and cultural origins of health psychology.

Answer 50

1. Ancient beliefs in mind-body connection and spiritual influences on health. 2. Hippocrates’ theory of humours and their balance affecting health. 3. Middle Ages’ view of disease as divine punishment. 4. Renaissance advancements in medical knowledge and technology. 5. Modern recognition of psychological and social factors in health.

Question 51

Advantages/Disadvantages of the Theory of Planned Behaviour

Answer 51

Advantages:
- Intentions may predict some behaviour
- Highlights the effects of social norms

Disadvantages:
- In general, intention is a poor predictor of behaviour - past behaviour is better
- It assumes our behaviour is rational
- Doesn’t account for environmental influence, social support and habits.