Psychology 15 Flashcards
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What do frequency, association, and causal claims mean?
Frequency- How often something occurs
Association- When x changes y tends to change too
Causal- X causes y to change
Which claim can we make if
we are using a correlational design?
Association
What does the correlation coefficient (Pearson’s r) measure?
It is a numerical value that describes 3 characteristics of the relationship between X and Y
What are the 3 characteristics of the correlation coefficient
Form, Direction, and Strength of relationship
What form of relationship can the correlation coefficient r measure?
Linear
What does a linear association mean?
that as one variable increases, the other variable also increases (positive association) or decreases (negative association) in a straight line.
What does a curvilinear association mean?
as one variable changes, the other variable changes, but not in a straight line; it curves
Are all meaningful associations between two variables linear?
No
How can we assess the strength of a correlation?
The closer the coefficient is to 1 the stronger, the closer it is to -1 the weaker
What is the minimum number of levels (also known as conditions) an experimental design should have?
At least 1 independent and 1 dependent
What is the main difference between independent-samples and repeated-measures designs?
In an independent sample only one group experiences one level and in a repeated measures designs everyone experiences all the levels
What is the difference between random sampling and random assignment?
Random sampling is randomly selecting participants and random assignment is randomly assigning people to a task
What is a control variable?
any variable held constant across groups
What do experimental, active control, and passive control groups include?
Experimental- assigned to the main condition of interest
Active- engaging in an activity, but not the same as the experimental group
Passive- no activity/business as usual
Why should researchers bother to have an active control group?
to ensure that any effects observed in the experimental group are truly due to the treatment being tested and not because of other factors
What does internal validity mean?
whether an experimental condition or treatment (training, prevention, intervention) makes a difference or not, and whether there is sufficient evidence to make a causal claim
What is a confounding variable?
something in the experiment that varies systematically with the independent variable, thus making it impossible to determine whether the independent variable or the confounding variable produced the observed outcome in the dependent variable
What type of validity can a confounding variable jeopardize?
Internal validity
How can we address potential confounding variables?
Somehow
What type of validity can unmatched groups in an experimental design jeopardize?
Internal validity
Is random assignment sufficient to address selection differences that can create unmatched groups?
No
How can we address the issue of unmatched groups?
Matched groups and statistically control for pre-study differences
What does observer bias mean?
researchers expect a particular outcome and behave differently toward one group or rate one group’s behaviors differently
How can we reduce observer bias?
Raters are unaware of group assignment and awareness about observer bias
What does demand characteristics mean?
participants guess (or know) what the study is about and change their behaviors accordingly
How can we reduce demand characteristics in an experimental design?
Make it harder for participants to guess study aims
Do not share the details of the study’s aim until the study complete
Assign participants to all conditions if possible (repeated-measure design)
What are the characteristics of repeated-measures (within subjects) design?
Participants experience all levels of the independent variable (IV)
Measure the dependent variable more than once
Can repeated-measures/within-subjects designs only be used in experimental studies?
No, they can be used in correlational designs
What are the advantages of repeated-measures designs?
Fewer participants needed
No independent groups -> no issue of matching groups
Can measure change over time
What are the disadvantages of repeated-measures designs?
Unique situations can only be experienced once
Order effects can decrease internal validity
What type of validity can order effects jeopardize?
Internal validity
Practice effects
When performance is better in subsequent levels of the independent variable due to experiences in previous levels
Fatigue effects
Performance decrease on subsequent levels of the independent variable
Participants may get tired or bored since they are repeatedly experiencing the same/similar tasks
Carryover effects
Effect of once level of the independent variable spills over into the next level
What does counterbalancing mean?
balance order effects across different conditions to which participants are exposed
What is the difference between within-subjects and between-subjects counterbalancing?
Within- Reverse counterbalancing
Between- mix up the order in which participants receive different treatments
What does differential transfer mean?
A specific ordering leads to effects on the dependent variable for that ordering only
If counterbalancing is not likely to address order effects, what are some other strategies we can use?
Different materials and stimuli
Washout period: a brief interval between levels of the independent variable to prevent order effects
How can researchers use the washout period to minimize order effects?
researchers can reduce the likelihood that the order in which treatments are administered influences the results of the study
What is the minimum number of independent variables included in a factorial design?
At least 2
What are the characteristics of a mixed experimental design?
Experimental Testing
Looking at Relationships
What are the differences between prevention, training, and intervention studies?
Prevention: try to stop something bad from happening
Trainings: practice particular skills to improve those skills (near-transfer) or other related skills
Interventions: reduce the incidence of maladaptive behavior, address learning disorders
