Psychology Flashcards
Franz Gull
- earliest theories that the behavior, intellect and personality may be linked to the brain anatomy
- phrenology: if a trait was developed, spot of the brain would expand
- believed expansion of knowledge would cause bulges in the head
- measure psychological attributes by feeling/measuring skull
Pierre Flourens
- studies functions of the major brain sections
- extirpation/ablation
extirpation: parts of brain removed, behavior observed - certain parts of the brain = specific functions
William James
- father of american psychology
- studied how mind adapts to the environment
- functionalism: mental processes help individuals adapt to their environments
John Dewey
- functionalism
- criticized reflex arc (breaking process of reacting to a stimulus into discrete parts)
- believed psychology should focus on study of organism as a whole as it functioned to adapt to environment
Paul Broca
- examined behavior deficits of people with brain damage
- 1st to show specific functional impairments could be linked with specific brain lesions
- studied man who could not speak, disability due to lesion in specific area of the left side of mans brain (Broca’s area)
Hermonn Von Helmholtz
- measured speed of nerve impulse
- related to reaction time (link between behavior and nervous system activity
- began to make psychology quantifiable
Sir Charles Sherrington
- inferred existence of synapses
- thought synaptic transmission was electrical, but it is actually chemical
Sensory neurons
(afferent neurons)
trasmit sensory info from receptors to spinal cord and brain
motor neurons
(efferent neurons)
transmit motor information from brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands
Interneurons
found between other neurons, most numerous of the three
located in brain and spinal cord, linked to reflexes
Reflex arcs
control reflexive behavior… formed by interneurons
ex: stepping on a nail, interneurons cause you to react before info reaches the brain
Central Nervous system (CNS)
brain and spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
nerve tissue and fibers outside brain and spinal cord (includes spinal nerves and cranial nerves)
Spinal nerves
31 pairs of nerves emanating from the spinal cord
cranial nerves
12 pairs of nerves emanating directly from brain
Somatic Nervous system
sensory and motor neurons through skin , joints, muscles
Afferent neurons Ascend in the cord towards brain, Efferent neurons Exit the cord to rest of body
Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
- regulated heartbeat, respiration, digestion and glandular secretions
- manages involuntary muscles
- regulates body temp
What are the two subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system
sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
- two antagonistic systems
Parasympathetic nervous system main role
- conserve energy
(resting, sleeping, reduce heart rate, constrict bronchi) - manage digestion (increase peristalsis and exocrine secretions)
What is the main neurotransmitter responsible for parasympathetic responses in the body?
- acetylcholine
Specific functions of the parasympathetic nervous system?
- constricts pupils
- stimulates flow of saliva
- constricts bronchi
- slows heartbeat
- stimulates peristalsis and secretion
- stimulates bile release
- contracts bladder
How is the sympathetic nervous system activated?
Stress!
(school, emergencies, life/death situations)
“fight or flight”
Specific functions of activated sympathetic nervous system?
- dilates pupiles
- inhibits salivation
- relaxes bronchi
- accelerates heartbeat
- stimulates sweating or piloerection
- inhibits peristalsis and secretion
- stimulates glucose production and release
- secretion of adrenaline and noradrenaline
- inhibits bladder contraction
- stimulates orgasm
Meninges
thick, three-layered sheath of connective tissue covering brain
What are the three layers of meninges?
outer: dura mater - connected to skull
middle: arachnoid mater
inner: pia mater, directly connected to brain
Role of meninges?
- keep brain anchored in skull
- resorb cerebrospinal fluid
What is cerebrospinal fluid
- aqueous solution that nourishes brain and spinal cord, provides protective cushion
- produced by special cells lining the ventricles (internal cavities) of brain
What are the three main parts of brain?
Hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain
Subdivisions of the hindbrain?
- cerebellum
- medulla oblongata
- reticular formation
- pons
Subdivisions of midbrain?
- inferior and superior colliculi
Subdivisions of Forebrain
- cerebral cortex
- basal ganglia
- limbic system
- thalamus
- hypothalamus
Brainstem
midbrain + hindbrain
Limbic system
Emotion and memory
(aggression, fear, pleasure, pain)
Cerebral cortex
outer covering of hemispheres
- language processing, problem solving, impulse control to long-term planning
Basal ganglia
movement
Hypothalamus
hunger and thirst, emotion
Inferior and super colliculi
sensorimotor reflexes
cerebellum
refined motor movements
Medulla oblongata
heart, vital reflexes (vomiting and coughing)
Reticular formation
arousal and alertness
Pons
communication within brain, breathing
Hindbrain controls?
Balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, arousal processes such as sleeping/waking
(vital functions)
Midbrain controls?
- receives sensory information from rest of body
- involuntary reflex responses triggered by visual or auditory stimuli
What are the two prominant nuclei in the midbrain?
Superior and inferior colliculus
Superior: receives visual sensory input
Inferior: auditory sensory input
Forebrain controls?
- complex perceptural, cognitive and behavioral processes
- emotion and memory
Describe the parts of embryonic brain development
- rhombencephalon (hindbrain) forms the myelencephalon (medulla oblongata) and metencephalon (pons and cerebellum)
- mesencephalon (midbrain)
- prosencephalon (forebrain) forms the telencephalon (cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system) and diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, pineal gland)
Neuropsychology
study of functions and behaviorsassociated with specific regions of the brain
Cortical maps
electrical stimulation in the brain
Electroencephalogram
(EEG)
image of the brain that allows electrical activity to be detected and recorded
- research sleep, seizures brain legions
Regional cerebral blood flow
(rCBF)
- detected broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to certain parts of brain
What are a few common scanning devices and methods of visualization used for brain imaging?
- CT (COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY)
- PET (POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY)
- MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
- fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)
Thalamus
- important relay station for incoming sensory information, all senses except smell
What are the subdivisions of the hypothalamus
- lateral hypothalamus
- ventromedial hypothalamus
- anterior hypothalamus
What kinds of processes does the hypothalamus regulate?
- endocrine functions and autonomic nervous system
- homeostatic functions, regulate metabolism, temperature and water balance
- hunger, thirst, sexual behavior
(Feeding, Fighting, Flighting, sexual Function)
How does the hypothalamus control water balance?
- osmoreceptors in hypothalamus trigger release of antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin) to increase water reabsorption
Describe the lateral hypothalamus
- referred to as the hunger center
- LH triggers eating/ drinking
Describe the ventromedial hypothalamus
- “satiety center”, provides signals to stop eating
Describe the anterior hypothalamus
controls sexual behavior, sleep, temperature
What are the divisions of the diencephalon
- posterior pituitary gland
- pineal gland
- connecting pathways to other brain regions
Posterior pituitary
- where vasopressin is released (ADH)
- where oxytocin is released
Pineal gland
- secretes melatonin, receives direct signals from retina for sunlight coordination
How does the basal ganglia relay information to the brain from the cortex?
- via extrapyramidal motor system
Describe the extrapyramidal motor system
- gathers info about body position and carries to CNS, not directly through motor neurons
Parkinson’s Disease
degredation of basal ganglia
- jerky movement- tremors
What components make up limbic system?
- septal nuclei
- amygdala
- hippocampus
- anterior cingulate cortex
Describe the septal nuclei
primary pleasure center
Describe amygdala
- defense and aggressive behavior
Describe hippocampus
- learning and memory processes… long term memory
- communicates with other portions through the fornix
Anterograde amnesia
- not being able to establish new long-term memory, memory before injury remain
Retrograde amnesia
- memory loss of events before brain injury
Anterior cingulate cortex
- higher order cognitive processes (frontal and parietal lobe connection)
- connected to limbic system
Cerebral cortex
- sometimes called neocortex
What are the bumps and folds in the cerebral cortex called? what is their purpose?
- gyri and sulci
- increase surface area
What are the two halves of the cerebrum?
- cerebral hemispheres
What are the four lobes of the cortex?
- Frontal
- Parietal
- occipital
- temporal
(F-POT)
What are the two regions of the frontal lobe?
- prefrontal cortex
- motor cortex
Prefrontal cortex
- manages executive function
- regulates attention and alertness
- communicates with reticular formation in brainstem (arousal)
Association area
- area that integrates input from diverse regions of the brain
Projection areas
- redimentary perceptual and motor tasks
ex: primary motor cortex
primary motor cortex
- located on precentral gyrus in front of central sulcus, divides frontal and parietal
- initiate voluntary motor movements by sending neural impulses down spinal cord to muscles
What is the projection area located on the parietal lobe?
- somatosensory cortex
- destination for sensory signals such as touch, pressure, temp and pain
What region does the occipital lobe contain?
- visual cortex (striate cortex)
-responsible for a lot of visual processing
What are the two areas located on the temporal lobe?
- auditory cortex
- Wernicke’s area
Auditory cortex
- sound processing, speech music
Wernicke’s area
- language reception, comprehension
Colateral communication
one side of brain communicates with opposite side of body
ex: left side of brain activates movements on the rise side of the bosy
Ipsilateral communication
- one side of brain communicates with same side of body
ex: hearing
Dominant hemispheres?
dominant: heavily stimulated during language reception and production
- usually on left
-analytic in function, manage details
brocas and wernickes area
Non dominant hemispheres
- usually the right
- intuition, creativity, music cognition and spatial processing
- less prominant role in language
- emotional tone, helps us to detect mood,
Acetylcholine function
- used to transmit nerve impulses to the muscles
- neurotransmitter used by parasympathetic nervous system and small portion of sympathetic
- linked to attention and arousal
- loss of cholinergenic neruons = alzheimers
catecholamines
epinepherine
norepinepherine
dopamine
(monoamines, biogenic amines due to being closely related)
dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia
- delusions, hallucinations agitation due to too much dopamine or oversensitivity to dopamine
Parkinsons is a result of….
loss of dopaminergic neurons in the basal ganglia
GABA
gamma-aminobuyric acid produces inhibitpry postsynaptic potentials… stabilizes neural activity in the brain
glycine
- inhibitory neurotransmitter in CNS by increasing chloride influx into neuron
glutamate
- neurotransmitter in CNS
- excitatory neurotransmitter
Endorphins
natural painkillers
Hypophyseal portal system
Directly connects the hypothalamus and pituitary glans
Anterior pituitary
releases hormones that regulate activities of the endocrine glands
Adrenal glands divided into
adrenall medulla and adrenal cortex
Adrenal Medulla
releases epinephrine and norepinephrine as part of sympathetic nervous system
Adrenal Cortex
- produces hormones called corticosteroids, including stress hormone cortisol
- produces testosterone and estrogen
Innate behavior
- genetically programmed as a result of eovlution
Learned behavior
- experience and environment
Adaptive value
- extent to which trait or behavior benefits a species by influencing the evolutionary fitness of the species
Sclera
thick structural layer, white of the eye
Choroidal vessels
blood vessels between sclera and retina
What are the two blood vessels that supply nutrients to the eye?
choroidal vessel
retinal vessels
Retina
contains photoreceptors that transduce light into electrical information the brain can process
cornea
where light passes first
how is the front of the eye split up?
anterior and posterior chamber
What muscle compose the iris?
- dilator pupillae (opens pupil)
- constrictor pupillae (constricts pupil)
choroid
- continuous with iris, provides nourishment to retina
ciliary body
- continuous with iris
- produces aqueous humor, which covers front of eye, drains into canal of schlemm
lens
- lies behind iris and helps control refraction of incoming light
suspensory ligaments
changes shape of the lens to focus on an image in the distance (accommodation)
vitreous humor
- transparent gel to support retina
retina
back of the eye, screen consisting of neural elements and blood vessels
- convert photons of light into electrical signals
duplicity theory of vision
- 2 kinds of photoreceptors:
- those specialized for light-and-dark
- those specialized for color detection
cones
- color vision and sense fine details
- effective in bright light and come in 3 forms: short, medium and long
rods
- highly sensitive to photons
- contain rhodopsin
macula
central section of the retina
high concentration of cones
fovea
centermost section of macula, contains only cones
bipolar cells
highlight gradients between adjacent rods or cones
ganglion cells
synapse with bipolar cells
Optic nerve
formed by synapsing of bipolar and ganglion cells
Amacrine and horizontal cells
receive input from mupltiple retinal cells in the same area before the information is passed on to the ganlion cells
visual pathways
- anatomical connections between eyes and brain
optic chiasm
- where the fibers from the nasal hald of each retina cross paths
optic tracts
- reorganized visual pathways
Lateral Geniculate nucleus
- (LGN)
- in thalamus
- synapse with nerves that pass through radiations in the temporal and parietal lobes to the visual cortex in occipital lobe
What role does the superior colliculus play in the visual pathway:
- some nerve fibers travel here from the LGN to control some reflexive responses to visual stimuli
Parallel processing
- brains ability to analyze information regarding color, form, motion and depth
parvocellular cells
high color spatial resolution
- detect fine details
temporal resolution
- to detect fast movement
magnocellular cells
- detect motion
- high temporal resultion
- low spatial resolution
binocular neurons
- compare the inputs to each hemisphere and detect differences
feature detectors
specialized cells that associate patterns of stimuli with expected behaviors
Somatosensation
having four modalities: pressure, vibration, pain and temperature
Pacinian corpuscles
deep pressure and vibration
meissner corpuscles
respond to light touch
merkel cells (discs)
deep pressure, texture
ruffini endings
respond to stretch
free nerve endings
respond to pain and temperature
somatosensory cortex
the receiver of somatosensations
Bottom up (data-driven) processing
object recognition by parallel processing and feature detection.
( forming an image before determining what the object is)
Top-down (conceptually driven) processing
memories and expectations to recognize the whole object
perceptual organization
ability to create a complete picture or idea by combining top-down and bottom-up processing
monocular cues
- only require one eye and include:
- size
- linear perspective
- motion parallax
relative size
- objects appear larger the closer they are
interposition
- overlapping objects, one in front is closer
linear perspective
- convergence of parallel lines
motion parallax
- objects closer to us move faster when we change our field of vision
