Psychology 1 Flashcards
Three Types of Encoding
1) visual- encoding of an image or visualization
2) acoustic- encoding of a sound
3) semantic- encoding of meaning, understanding
- strongest most enduring memories
Processes that aide in encoding memories:
- Mnemonics: memory device that aid in retrieval from the memory; PEMDAS
- Chunking: individual pieces are broken down and then grouped together
- Peg-word System: mnemonic that is used to memorize lists that need to be in order
- Method of Loci: method of memory enhancement that uses spatial memory, familiar info about one’s environment
- State Dependent Learning: linking concepts to places you know well; can help cue memory
Self-reference Effect
when asked to recall information related to them, they can recall it very well; depending on how heavily the information impacts the person directly
The testing effect
forced active recall during the learning phase increases retention
-testing should be at the beginning of the learning process
The spacing effect
long term memory is enhanced when things are spaced out over time not in immediate succession
Desirable Difficulties
“expensive memory principle”
deep processing produces strong long term memory memories
Shallow vs Deep Processing
Shallow- structural or phonemic processing; what things look like, what things sound like
Both involve only maintenance rehearsal and produce weak, short-lived memories
Deep- semantic processing; encoding MEANING of a concept, CONTEXT surrounding a concept or making connections to previously encoded material
Types of Memory
1) sensory: brief storage of sensory information (sight, sound tastes)
2) working
3) short-term: temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory and connects to long-term memory
4) long-term:continuous storage of information; has no limit
explicit: try to consciously remember and recall
implicit: those that are not part of consciousness; formed from behaviors
5) episodic:info about events we have personally experienced
6) semantic: knowledge about words, concepts, and language based on facts and knowledge
Semantic Networks
semantic processing requires the addition of context and meaning to what would otherwise just be fact
Spreading Activation
Speed of connection between nodes is NOT equivalent
- those more similarly related fire more rapidly
- frequently used fire rapidly
Types of Retrieval
use or application of a stored memory
- Recall: retrieval and active statement of, or correct applications of a memory
- recognition: association of information an existing memory
- relearning: increased learning efficiency when reinforcing an existing memory
Retrieval Clues/Testing effects
-Priming: presenting a related word first increases recall or verification rate; DOCTOR (primer) presented before NURSE (target) speeds recognition of nurse
-Typicality Effect: using a typical example of a concept increases recall over using a less-typical example
-Familiarity Effect: increases level of familiarity with the example increases recall
-True-False Effect: true statements are verified quicker than false statements are negated
-Category Size Effect: recall and verification rates increase if the category has few members and decreases if it has many members
-Serial-Position Effect: presentation order, or positioning in a list impacts recall
Primacy effect predicts the first few concepts presented will be remembered better, while the recency effect predicts that the last few concepts presented will be remembered
-Interference Effects:a new memory that is similar to an existing can cause interference, or increased difficulty recalling original
-Automatic Spreading Activation: said to occur when the primer is a category name and the target is an example within the category
Role of Emotion in Memory
1) heightened emotional states: memories coded during heightened emotional states are usually remembered more easily
2) Emotional interference: strength of other memories occurring before or after are decreased
3) Positive vs. Negative Recall: positive remembered easily, negative forgotten
- depressed individuals remember positive and negative equally
- older show stronger recall bias for neg/pos
4) differences in level of detail: positive memory include more accompanying details that neg
5) State-dependent learning: as previously discussed in the chapter, similarity between the states in which a memory is encoded and retrieved enhances recall– includes mood or emotions
Curve of Forgetting: Hermann Ebbinghaus
From lowest to highest: 12-20, 3-5, 2-10, and 1-2. The point here is that the closer to the point at which rehearsal ends, the more information is lost more quickly. After the first few days, there is a very gradual decay in the information that is retained.
Age-Related trends by Memory type
- Sharpest decline in EPISODIC memory: where was I when…? What did I do last night? SOURCE memory: where did I read or learn about this? Who told me about?
- Little to no decline– SEMANTIC; more conceptual information, easier to retain
Alzheimer’s Disease
neurodegenerative disease that includes memory loss, impaired cognition and language deterioration
- age 65 <
- late stage: loss of judgement, confusion, and drastic mood/personality changes
Alzheimer’s PHYSIOLOGICAL changes:
- In between CNS neurons and B-amyloid peptides, portions of amyloid precursor protein aggregate to from B-amyloid plaques OUTSIDE OF THE CELL (these are normally snipped off in healthy individuals)
- Cytosol: Tau protein, associated with microtubules, goes through hyperphosphorylation and causes modified Tau protein to aggregate into insoluble neurofibrillary tangles (INSIDE CELL)
- Size of BRAIN (TEMPOROFRONTAL AND FRONTAL CORTEX) decreases significantly
- Size of VENTRICLES increases and HIPPOCAMPUS decreases
Korsakoff’s Syndrome
brain disorder resulting from severe thiamine deficiency (Vit B1), most often from chronic alcohol abuse
Korsakoff’s Syndrome explained
- alcohol inhibits conversion of thiamine to its active form thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP)
- alcoholics vomit frequently–> inflamed GI lining and poor eating habits
Wernicke’s Encephalopathy
mild version of condition that precedes Korsakoff’s syndrome– can be fully treated by intravenous vitamin injections and cessation of alcohol use
Amnesia
Loss of memory resulting from injury, brain damage or psychological trauma– different from forgetting, in which traces can be made again
Anterograde amnesia
inability to create new memories occurring after an event that has caused amnesia
Retrograde amnesia
memories created prior to amnesia cannot be remembered but new memories can still be made
Dementia
gradual, long-term decline in one’s general mental function or capability that is severe enough to
interfere with one’s daily life
-can include memory loss, but also decline of the CNS
Prospective memory
remembering to do a future event; returning library book, taking medication
Memory Constructions
the creation, fabrication or recall of false memories;
- confabulation: creation of false but vivid detailed memories to fill in gaps in a coherent story; often seen in Korsakoff’s or Alzheimer’s
- Misinformation Effect:presentation of inaccurate post-event details can cause accurate memory to be altered
- Source Monitoring Errors:recall errors in the source of the memory inaccurately identified (source amnesia)
2 judgements in recall used to determine source
- Heurstic Judgements: UNCONSCIOUS determination of the source based on clues or short-cuts associated with the memory
- Systematic Judgements: CONSCIOUS determ. of source based on intentional logical evaluation of the details remembered
Neural plasticity
ability of the brain and its neurons to physically change in response to various stimuli for diff. reasons
-synapses, dendrites and glial cells all change
Plasticity Closely related to three events
1) development: infant brains vs. adults: contain SAME number of neurons, more synapses, and fewer glial (support cells)
2) Memory Storage:LTM traces are always the result of PHYSICAL changes to the neuron itself– additional dendrites to strengthen neuronal connection and altering of synaptic membrane to increase or decrease the strength of an individual synapse
3) CNS Injury: after brain injury the brain has the ability to reassign some fxns from the injured portion to other regions; in some seizure patients one hemisphere is removed and if done at a young age, the remaining hemisphere will take over all functions– letting the child live a normal life
Synaptic Pruning
number of synapses decreased through selective destruction of weak, less-frequently-used; strengthens strongest, most frequently used synapses
Ex: Autistic children have more neural synapses that non-autistic children of same age because of DECREASED synaptic pruning
