Psychological Exp: Cognitive

Question 1

Kohlberg - Moral Development

Answer 1

1) Kohlberg suggests ppl develop their moral reasoning as they get older.

2) He believed that moral reasoning improved with age and people were better able to understand the position of other people and society in general.

Question 2

Kohlberg - Moral Dilemma

Answer 2

Kohlberg et al. (1973) used a moral dilemma technique (e.g. Heinz dilemma) and found offenders tend to be at the pre-conventional level, whereas non-offenders progress higher.

1) Kohlberg conducted his study on 72 boys aged 10, 13, and 16.
2) Pre-conventional level is characterised by:
* A need to avoid punishment and gain rewards.
* Less mature, childlike reasoning.
Offenders may commit crime if they can get away with it or gain rewards (e.g. money, respect).

Question 3

Cognitive Distortions

Answer 3

1) Cognitive distortions are errors or biases in info processing characterised by faulty thinking.

Question 4

Hostile Attribution Bias

Answer 4

1) Schönenberg and Jusyte (2014) found violent offenders were more likely than non-offenders to perceive ambiguous facial expressions as angry and hostile.

2) Offenders misread non-aggressive cues (e.g. being looked at) and this can trigger a disproportionate and violent response.

Question 5

Minimalisation

Answer 5

1) Minimalisation reduces a person’s sense of guilt.

For example, burglars may use euphemisms, e.g. ‘doing a job’ or ‘supporting my family’ as a way of minimising the seriousness of their actions and their sense of guilt.

2) Likely in sex offenders - Barbaree (1991) found 54% rapists denied they had committed an offence at all and a further 40% minimised the harm they had caused to the victim.

Question 6

Limitation of Moral Reasoning

Answer 6

DEPENDS ON TYPE OF OFFENCE

1) Thornton and Reid (1982) found that people whose crimes were for financial
gain (e.g. robbery) were more likely to show pre-conventional level than if impulsive crime (e.g. assault).

2) Pre-conventional tends to be associated with crimes in which offenders believe they have a good chance of evading punishment.

–> This suggests that Kohlberg’s theory may
not apply to all forms of crime.

Question 7

Limitation of Moral Reasoning

Answer 7

GENDER BIAS

1) The study was conducted with an all-male sample.
2) However Kohlberg generalised his findings to the entire population.
–> This demonstrates beta bias, whereby the differences between men and women are minimised.

Question 8

Strength of Cognitive Distortions

Answer 8

IRL APPLICATION

1) In cognitive behaviour therapy, offenders are helped to ‘face up’ to what they have done and a have a less distorted view of their actions.

2) Studies suggest that reduced denial
and minimalisation in therapy is associated with less reoffending.

–> This suggests that the theory of cognitive
distortions has practical value.

Question 9

Limitation of Cognitive Distortions

Answer 9

DEPENDS ON TYPE OF OFFENCE

1) Howitt and Sheldon (2007) found that non-contact sex offenders (accessed sexual images on the internet) used more cognitive distortions than contact sex offenders (physically abused children).

2) Those who had a previous history of offending were also more likely to use
distortions as a justification for their
behaviour.

–> This suggests that cognitive distortions are not used in the same way by all offenders.