Psychodynamic Approach

Question 1

Basic assumptions of the Psychodynamic approach

Answer 1

*Most of our behaviour and feelings are caused by unconscious processes. The unconscious is the largest part of our mind and it is a part we are unaware of and cannot access.

*Much of what is in the unconscious comes from childhood experiences and derives from strong emotions, fears and unresolved conflicts.

*Behaviour is influenced by two main instincts. Eros is the life instinct and comprises the drives necessary for survival such as the libido, or sex drive. Thanatos is the death instinct. These instincts create psychic energy which causes tension and anxiety if not released.

*The libido is active from birth and is expressed in different ways through a series of psychosexual stages. Fixation at each stage is associated with certain types of personality and behaviour.

*There are three parts to the personality - the Id, Ego and Superego. They are in constant battle and the way they interact with each other has an effect on the way we behave.

*Adult behaviour is influenced by ego defence mechanisms that protect the conscious mind from too much distress.

Question 2

The role of the unconscious

Answer 2

The unconscious is the largest part of the mind.

It protects the conscious self from anxiety, fear, trauma and conflict. Ego defence mechanisms attempt to ensure that disturbing emotions, traumatic memories and unresolved conflicts are kept hidden deep in the unconscious mind and inaccessible to the conscious. For example, ‘burying’ traumatic memories in the unconscious to prevent an individual becoming too upset by an experience.

The unconscious is the driving force behind our behaviour and personality. Traumatic memories that are repressed (hidden in the unconscious) can lead to anxiety, and depression. Fixation (which resides in the unconscious mind) occurring at one of the psychosexual stages, can influence an adult’s personality.

Question 3

Evaluation, role of the unconscious, practical application

Answer 3

The idea of the unconscious led to a new form of therapy called psychoanalysis demonstrating a practical application of the psychodynamic approach. The aim of this therapy is to uncover the contents of the unconscious mind and help people deal with unresolved problems which are believed to be the cause of disorders such as depression and anxiety. Biskup et al (2005) reported a study of 36 patients demonstrating that at the end of psychoanalysis, 77% showed significant improvement. This suggests that the ideas of the approach have practical value in offering a useful and effective therapy.

Question 4

The structure of the personality

Answer 4

Freud thought that there are three parts to the personality, all of which want to have their needs fulfilled but they are often at odds with each other. The tension between them results in certain types of behaviour and personality.

Question 5

The Id

Answer 5

is the primitive, animalistic side of our mind and operates on the pleasure principle.

It is made up of our basic biological drives such as hunger, aggression, sex etc. and it demands that its needs are met immediately. It is only concerned with its own desires. For example, if you needed to go to the toilet, your Id would press you to do so instantly regardless of where you were. The id resides within the unconscious mind.

Question 6

The ego

Answer 6

is the rational part of our mind and it operates on the reality principle. It mediates (or referees) between the Id and the expectations of the external, social world. It controls the Id and only allows it to have its needs met in a socially acceptable manner.

For example, aggressive desires from the Id might be fulfilled by participating in or watching a contact sport such as rugby. The Ego also tries to balance the conflicting demands of the Id and the high moral standards of the Superego. The ego resides within the conscious.

Question 7

The Superego

Answer 7

appears at the end of the phallic stage. It is formed from the moral standards of our same sex parent and contains our sense of what is right and wrong. It operates on the morality principle. It also represents our ego-ideal, what we would be like if we were perfect. The Superego drives us to do what is right and punishes us with feelings of guilt if we fail to meet its high standards. For example, you might eat a whole packet of biscuits because your Id wants to and then your Superego would make you feel guilty about it. The superego resides within the unconscious mind.

Question 8

Evaluation, the structure of the personality, criticism

Answer 8

A major problem with this view of personality is that the ideas are hard to falsify. Popper claimed that a theory is only ‘good science’ if it can be proved wrong – this is known as falsifiability. The id, ego and superego are concepts rather than physical structures within the brain therefore scientific methods such as brain scans cannot be used in an attempt to disprove their existence. This means that Freud’s claims about the structure of personality are not falsifiable and therefore cannot be regarded as scientific.

Question 9

Defence mechanisms

Answer 9

Conflict between the id and superego can create anxiety for the conscious mind. To reduce anxiety, the ego uses defence mechanisms. Defence mechanisms involve altering reality in some way allowing the conscious mind to cope. Freud believed that it is normal to use defence mechanisms some of the time. However, when used excessively, a person is likely to show signs of mental illness.

Question 10

3 Defence mechanisms

Answer 10

Repression, Denial, Displacement

Question 11

Repression

Answer 11

This defence mechanism is used by the Ego to hide distressing or unacceptable memories and emotions from the conscious mind. These memories and emotions are likely to have come from a bad experience or from strong impulses. The Ego buries the memory or emotions in the unconscious mind. Although the feelings have been hidden, they can still influence behaviour in undesirable ways. Repressed memories may appear through in altered forms, such as in dreams or slips of the tongue (‘Freudian slips’).

For example, a child who has experienced abuse might later have no recollection of the abuse ever happening. Another example is in the Oedipus complex, where aggressive thoughts about the same sex parent are repressed and pushed down into the unconscious

Question 12

Evaluation, repression support

Answer 12

There is evidence to support the idea of repression. Williams (1992) gathered longitudinal data from a sample of African-American women who, as children, had previously disclosed sexual abuse. Her study revealed that a substantial proportion (38%) did not recall the abuse when asked about it 17 years later

Question 13

Denial

Answer 13

This is used by the Ego to block the reality of a situation that is hard to face up to. An individual refuses to acknowledge a situation or event that causes anxiety. By denying the situation, the person does not experience anxiety. For example, someone who is overweight might protest that they do not have an eating problem and fail to diet. A student may refuse to recognise their obvious lack of preparedness for an exam.

Question 14

Displacement

Answer 14

Displacement is used by the Ego to redirect an impulse (usually aggression) towards a substitute target. The target can be a person or object and will be one that is more acceptable and often, more helpless. The re-direction of energy results in the reduction of anxiety.

Displacement occurs when the Id wants to do something that the Superego does not allow. The Ego therefore finds some other way of releasing the psychic energy of the Id. For example, anger felt towards your Mum for not letting you borrow the car might be redirected into hostile behaviour towards your cat. Anger towards your girlfriend for finishing with you might be redirected towards the customers in your part-time job.

Question 15

Psychosexual stages

Answer 15

Freud believed that child development occurs through five fixed stages. At each stage, the libido is focused on experiencing pleasure in different parts of the body.

There is a conflict that must be resolved at each stage before moving on to the next stage. If this is not resolved, fixation occurs. Fixation in one stage leads to the child developing behaviours and experiencing future conflicts related to that particular stage.

Question 16

Stage 1: Oral

Answer 16

0-2years
Focus of pleasure: the mouth. The child derives pleasure from sucking, chewing and biting.

Conflict to be resolved: The child needs to successfully move away from reliance on breast feeding through weaning.

Oral personality traits: critical & sarcastic.

Oral behaviours: thumb-sucking, smoking, pen-chewing, smoking.

Question 17

Stage 2: Anal

Answer 17

2-3years
Focus of pleasure: the anus. Pleasure is gained from retaining and expelling faeces.

Conflict to be resolved: The child needs to master toilet training.

Anal-retentive personality traits: obsessive, perfectionist, punctual, tidy.

Anal-expulsive personality traits: disorganised, messy, rebellious.

Question 19

Stage 3: Phallic stage

Answer 19

3-6years
Focus of pleasure: the genitals.

Conflict to be resolved: The child has to resolve the Oedipus or Electra complex through identification with their same sex parent.

Phallic personality traits: vain & reckless.

Could lead to homosexuality.

Question 20

Stage 4: Latency

Answer 20

6-12years
The libido is less active during this stage. Conflicts from the earlier stages are repressed. The child focuses on mastering social skills.

Question 21

Stage 5: Genital

Answer 21

12+
Sexual energy becomes permanently located in the genitals and sexual desire becomes conscious.

Conflict to be resolved: formation of adult sexual relationships.

Difficulty forming heterosexual relationships.

Fear of intimacy.

Question 22

Evaluation, Psychosexual stages, evidence support

Answer 22

Freud provided evidence to support his concept of the Oedipus complex with his case study of Little Hans. Hans was a five-year-old boy who developed a phobia of horses after seeing one collapse in the street. Freud suggested that Hans’ phobia was a form of displacement in which his repressed fear of his father was transferred onto horses. Therefore, horses were actually a symbolic representation of Hans’ real unconscious fear – the fear of castration experienced during the Oedipus complex.

Question 23

Evaluation of the psychodynamic approach, evidence support

Answer 23

*There is evidence to support aspects of this approach. For example, Williams (1992) supported the idea of repression, and Freud provided evidence to support his concept of the Oedipus complex and the idea of displacement with his case study of Little Hans. This gives us confidence that the psychodynamic approach may be a credible way of explaining behaviour.

Question 24

Evaluation of the psychodynamic approach, criticism

Answer 24

*However, much of the supporting evidence comes from case studies. Use of case studies as supporting evidence can be criticised as they rely heavily on subjective interpretation rather than on objective information. The conclusions that Freud drew from his case studies are not necessarily the same as those made by other researchers so cannot be regarded as scientific. In addition, case studies are not based on representative samples from conclusions can be drawn about human nature in general. This questions the accuracy and usefulness of the psychodynamic approach in explaining behaviour in all individuals.

*Another criticism is that many of the ideas within this approach are hard to falsify. Popper claimed that a theory is only ‘good science’ if it can be proved wrong – this is known as falsifiability. For example, the id, ego and superego are concepts rather than physical structures within the brain therefore scientific methods such as brain scans cannot be used in an attempt to disprove their existence. This means therefore, that the psychodynamic approach cannot be regarded as scientific and leads some to lose confidence in its ability to explain behaviour.

Question 25

Evaluation of the psychodynamic approach, practical applications

Answer 25

*The psychodynamic approach has practical applications, one being a form of therapy called psychoanalysis. The aim of this therapy is to uncover the contents of the unconscious mind and help people deal with unresolved problems which are believed to be the cause of disorders such as depression and anxiety. This suggests that the ideas of the approach have practical value in offering a useful and effective therapy.