Cognitive Approach Flashcards
Study of internal mental processes
The cognitive approach focuses on mental processes such as perception, thinking and memory.
As these are private and effectively inaccessible it investigates them by trying to infer (work out) the mental processes that lie behind behaviour seen in an experiment.
There are many times when we do not know ourselves what thought processes initiated certain behaviour so would not be able to use introspection as Wundt did to usefully reveal these.
Basic assumptions of the cognitive approach
- The way we think (eg positively, negatively, irrationally) influences our behaviour.
- Humans are information processors and this processing is similar to that of a computer. Information is received from the environment, processed in the mind, and an output (eg a behaviour) is generated.
- Humans do not passively respond to their environment. Instead, the human mind actively processes information it receives.
- The study of internal mental processes used to actively process information is therefore important in understanding behaviour. Mental processes such as memory, attention and problem-solving can be studied scientifically. Assumptions are made based on the responses shown by participants.
- Cognitive psychologists study participants with healthy brains using laboratory experiments as well as those who have experienced brain damage (case studies).
Role of schemas
A schema is a set of beliefs, knowledge and expectations developed from our experiences. It influences our mental processes in a number of ways. Having a schema can help us to deal with a lot of incoming information quickly and efficiently without having to laboriously think about each individual bit of information or experience separately. It is like an organised filing cabinet where you can quickly file and sort incoming information.
In addition, what we already know or expect has an effect on how we interpret incoming information and we might make mistakes because of the prior knowledge and expectations coming from our schema. This can make our perception of events inaccurate.
Schemas can be used to understand mental disorders such as depression. A depressed person often has a negative schema that leads them to interpret their experiences in a gloomy, negative way even though that experience might have been positive or happy.
Schemas can also be used to explain memory. An eyewitness to a violent crime might recall that the perpetrator was male even if they were female because of the expectations of their schema that violent crimes are committed by men.
Our schema also fills in gaps in our memory on the basis of what we would have expected to have happened. If we had seen someone being robbed in the street and we had noticed that the victim had a walking stick but we did not really notice other features of the person, our schema would fill in for us that the person was old. We would recall that an old person had been attacked on the street when in fact they had been a young person with a leg injury. This can be a problem when asking eye witnesses to give their testimony of an event as it might not be accurate.
Theoretical models
The cognitive approach often uses models or representations of how it believes mental processes operate. A theoretical model is an idea of how mental processes might work and fit together. Theoretical models are often presented as diagrams using boxes and arrows to indicate the components and processes thought to be involved. There are theoretical models of memory processes such as the multi store model.
Using a theoretical model is consistent with adopting a scientific approach to psychology. Each of the parts of the model can be tested out experimentally to see if the results are in line with the ideas of the theoretical model. If they are then the model can be assumed to have scientific credibility as providing an explanation whereas if the results challenge the theoretical model then it has to be reformulated. This is a central feature of science.
Computer models
With the advent of computers in the 1980s the cognitive approach began to use the analogy of the mind as a computer because it assumes that the mind has the same function as a computer. It is an information processor. Information enters the mind/computer, it is processed or stored in the mind/computer and then there is an output or action by the mind/computer.
Computer models assume that the mind operates as a series of processing steps and storage places just like a computer. One example is Ellis’s ABC Model of Depression
Using computer models is consistent with adopting a scientific approach to psychology. Using lab experiments, researchers can present participants with different ‘inputs’ (ie stimuli), record the ‘outputs’ (ie responses) and then make inferences about what internal processing is happening within the mind.
Making inferences about mental processes
Cognitive psychologists use theoretical and computer models to make inferences about mental processes.
This means going beyond the immediate evidence to draw conclusions about what mental processes are taking place from the ideas in the models. Experiments test out the ideas in the models to produce behaviour that is then used to infer the mental processes that were happening.
Cognitive psychologists have to make inferences about cognitive functioning because mental processes cannot be directly observed.
Evaluation of the cognitive approach, supporting evidence
*There is supporting evidence for the claims made by the cognitive approach. For example, the notion that mental illnesses can be explained by faulty internal processing is supported by Grazioli and Terry. They assessed 65 pregnant women for cognitive vulnerability (irrational- negative thinking) and depression before and after giving birth. Women judged high in cognitive vulnerability were more likely to suffer post-natal depression. This suggests that mental health problems arise from distorted cognitions.
*The cognitive approach relies on the use of controlled and standardised laboratory experiments to investigate mental processes. This means that it is a scientific approach that produces information about mental processes that can be trusted.
Evaluation of the cognitive approach
*However, a criticism of that the cognitive approach relies heavily on the use of inference to gain insight into mental processes. Some people claim that inferences are a ‘leap too far’ and means that it is not abiding by the principles of science that demands direct evidence that needs no interpretation – empirical, objective evidence. This weakens the value of the approach in psychology as it is not very scientific.
*Another major criticism is that it is too mechanistic in the way it views humans. The cognitive approach relies quite heavily on using the analogy of the mind as an information processor like a computer. It underestimates the impact of emotional and motivational factors and the effect they can have on our mental processes. For example, the emotion that we experience when witnessing a crime or accident can have a significant effect on how well we subsequently recall that event. In this respect it is a limited approach to explaining the mind in reducing it to the simplistic level of a machine (this is called mechanistic reductionism).
Evaluation of the cognitive approach, practical applications
*The cognitive approach has been useful in many respects in everyday life and has very important practical applications. For example, it has generated CBT - a successful therapy for mental illness that helps individuals to have different more useful thought processes. The cognitive approach has also been useful in helping the police to use better techniques to get more accurate information from eye witnesses.
Emergence of cognitive neuroscience
The cognitive approach relies heavily on making inferences about unobservable mental processes. The reliance on inference in cognitive psychology weakened its scientific credentials as science relies on empirical, objective evidence that needs no interpretation or making of inferences.
Cognitive neuroscience studies the influence of brain structures on mental processes. The emergence of cognitive neuroscience occurred due to advances in brain imaging techniques such as fMRI and PET scans, which allow scientists to study the neurobiological basis of mental processes like memory.
Being able finally to get empirical, objective evidence through using sophisticated scanning techniques established cognitive neuroscience as a scientific way of investigating mental processes.
Practical applications of cognitive neuroscience
In the 1860s Paul Broca identified an area of the brain in the frontal lobe (now known as Broca’s area) involved in the production of speech. Whereas Wernicke found a similar area which is thought to be involved in the comprehension of speech.
Evaluation of cognitive neuroscience, supporting evidence
*There is supporting evidence for the notion that internal mental processes are underpinned by biological processes. Raine et al (1997) investigated 41 murderers and 41 people who did not have a history of violent crime. They performed PET scans on all participants and found that murderers had much lower levels of activity in their pre frontal cortex than the control group. The pre frontal cortex is linked to a loss of self control and emotional reactions. The consequence of such research is that we can scan people’s brains from early childhood to prevent future crimes. The case studies of KF and HM also helped reveal information about brain structures and short and long term memory. KF had damaged his left parietal occipital lobe in a motorbike accident and had very poor short term memory for numbers but a fully functioning long term memory. HM had his hippocampus removed during surgery for epilepsy which left him with a complete inability to form long term memories but a perfectly functioning short term memory.
*In addition, the development of cognitive neuroscience has increased the value of the cognitive approach by incorporating biological factors with cognitive processes in a more complete explanation of the mind. Cognitive neuroscience has further strengthened the scientific nature of the cognitive approach in its use of objective brain scanning techniques to investigate mental processes adding to its value.
Evaluation of cognitive neuroscience, criticism
*Despite this, cognitive neuroscience has the potential to be a socially sensitive area of research. For example, scanning the brains of children to identify early abnormal activity in their pre frontal cortex is controversial and could lead to labelling young people before they have committed a crime.
Evaluation of cognitive neuroscience, practical application
*Cognitive Neuroscience has had very important practical applications. The development of fMRI and PET scans has enabled psychologists to pinpoint some areas of the brain specifically linked to memory processes. This has also helped the medical profession deal promptly with stroke victims and their longer term rehabilitation. Scanning techniques have also helped to identify areas of the brain linked to mental illness such as the caudate nucleus being associated with the worry involved in OCD.
