Psycho 101 EXAM 2 study questions Flashcards
(209 cards)
1
Q
What is a concept? Provide 2 examples.
A
A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas of people.
- Chair: baby high chair, reclining chair, rocking chair, a dentist chair - all for sitting.
- Dog: lab, golden doodle, poodle - all dogs; different types.
2
Q
What is a prototype? Provide 2 examples.
A
A mental image or best example of a category. A first model of something.
- If people were going to make a new toaster, they would create the prototype, then innovate it from there.
- The prototype (in my mind) for a dog is a lab, so every other dog I see I compare it to the original prototype - the lab.
3
Q
What are the 4 problem solving strategies discussed in class?
A
- Trial and Error
- Insight
- Algorithm
- Heuristic
4
Q
Trial and Error
A
Trying different solutions and eliminating those that do not work.
The bird trying to get food from the basket using a twig - he tried different ways to get the food and if it did not work after a few attempts, he tried a new strategy.
5
Q
Insight
A
A sudden realization of a problem’s solution.
Riddles are an example of insight: The more you take, the more you leave behind. What am I? - footsteps
Take a break and the answer may come to you.
6
Q
Algorithm
A
A systematic, step-by-step problem solving strategy that is guaranteed to produce a solution.
- slow but typically accurate
- Useful with math problems
- Try all possible solutions
Example: solving a word jumble and trying all possible combination of letters.
7
Q
Heuristic
A
A mental shortcut or general problem solving strategy that we apply to a certain class of situations
- Fast but not always accurate
- Useful for quick thinking
- Simple thinking strategy
Example: Solving a word jumble by trying common combinations of letters.
8
Q
What did the “Cheap Necklace Problem” demonstrate the importance of?
A
It demonstrated the importance of taking a break.
If you work hard on a problem, you brain gets “stuck” on the solution. If you wait, your subconscious lets in more solutions to come in (insight)
9
Q
Confirmation Bias (Define and provide at least one example and explain why it is an obstacle).
A
The tendency to notice and use information that confirms our beliefs and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.
Example: hiring decisions - If we are predisposed to like someone, we confirm that the person is good for the job (vise versa)
This is an obstacle because when we seek to confirm, we can make poor judgements.
10
Q
Availability heuristic (Define and provide at least one example and explain why it is an obstacle).
A
Judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory - may be due to vividness, recently, or distinctiveness.
Example: Do more words begin with R or have R as the 3rd letter? - 3rd letter, however we generate more words that start with R in our head so we think more words start with R.
- Death from giving birth is more likely than death from accidental shooting.
This is an obstacle because if instances come readily to mind, we assume that they are more common and more likely to occur.
11
Q
Functional Fixedness (Define and provide at least one example and explain why it is an obstacle).
A
A block to problem solving that comes from thinking about objects in terms of only their typical functions.
- Limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used
Example: How would you use toilet paper tubes and binder clips to organize all your charger cords?
This is an obstacle because it does not allow you to be creative with they way objects work or have the potential of working.
12
Q
Framing Effects (Define and provide at least one example and explain why it is an obstacle).
A
Different ways of presenting the same information evoke different responses.
Example:
- You tell group A that the survival rate is 90% in the first month (positive frame).
- You tell group B that there is a 10% mortality rate in the first month (negative frame).
- –> same information; present differently
- Group A favored over group B
This is an obstacle because even though the same information is being presented, the way it is delivered may have a positive or negative effect on the person - you have to be careful about how information is presented.
13
Q
Overconfidence bias (Define and provide at least one example and explain why it is an obstacle).
A
Our tendency to be more confident than correct.
Example: Thinking you can put of work and still get it done.
This is an obstacle because you are overestimating the accuracy of our estimates, predictions, and knowledge.
14
Q
Belief Perseverance (Define and provide at least one example and explain why it is an obstacle).
A
Clinging to ones initial beliefs after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.
Example: There might be evidence of a God but someone choses to stick to the original beliefs of evolution which there is not evidence of.
This is an obstacle because your beliefs are wrong because there is no facts or evidence.
15
Q
What obstacle are you likely facing if you wait until the night before the exam to study and you think you’ll do fine on the exam?
A
Overconfidence bias
16
Q
Motivation
A
A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior towards a goal.
17
Q
What are the 3 characteristics of motivation that psychologists study?
A
Activation, Persistance, and intensity
18
Q
If you consider a behavior, such as studying, how would you describe differences between individuals based on their activation, persistence, and intensity of motivation to engage in the behavior?
A
Activation: going to the library and getting your books out
Persistence: sitting down and doing your homework until it is done
Intensity: how focused you are when you take notes and how many notes you take.
19
Q
What are all the theories of motivation?
A
- Instinct theory
- Drive theory and Incentive theory
- Arousal theory
- Humanistic theories
- Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
- Self-determination theory
20
Q
What is drive? Give an example.
A
An aroused/tense state related to a physical need such as hunger or thirst. A “push” to behave.
Example: driven to eat because you are hungry
21
Q
What is incentive? Give an example.
A
Positive or negative environmental stimuli that motive behavior. A “pull” to behave.
Example: motivated to eat donuts because donuts are yummy; not because you are hungry.
22
Q
What is the difference between drive and incentive?
A
Drive is something that you need (hungry), incentive is something that you do not need (eat donut because yummy)
23
Q
Why are the needs in Maslow’s theory of motivation in a hierarchy?
A
Because some needs have priority over others. The needs with the highest priority are ranked at the bottom and the needs with less of a priority in ones life are closer to the top.
24
Q
What determines which motivation(s) are higher vs lower on the hierarchy? (Maslow’s theory of motivation)
A
The most important needs are at the bottom (hunger and thirst) and the less important needs are at the top (finding identity beyond self)
25
What is intrinsic motivation?
The desire to engage in tasks that are inheritantly satisfying and enjoyable, novel, or optimally challenging; to do something for its own sake.
"I did it because I wanted to"
26
What is extrinsic motivation?
External factors or influences on behavior such as rewards, consequences, or social expectations.
"I love learning, but I wanted the diploma"
27
What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?
Intrinsic is doing something because you were motivated to do it, extrinsic is doing something because others expected you to do it.
28
What theory of motivation do intrinsic and extrinsic motivation belong to?
Self-determination theory
29
What are the 3 components of an emotion?
A response of the whole organism, involving...
1. Physiological arousal
2. Expressive behavior
3. Conscious experience
30
What distinguishes an emotion from a mood?
a mood is an emotional state
31
What does it mean for emotional expression to be universal?
There seem to be some universally understood facial expressions.
32
What is the main problem with the James-Lange theory of emotion?
1. neither James nor Lange based their ideas upon anything that remotely resembled controlled experiments - the theory was largely the result of introspection and correlational research
2. Sometimes we can't tell if certain physiological responses to stimuli are occurring to have us create a mood
33
How does the experiment by Schachter and Singer (1962) with the injections of epinephrine, demonstrate support for the Two Factor Theory of emotion?
Physiological Arousal: Epinephrine injection
Cognitive Appraisal: observing the person in the waiting room, and acting happy if the person was happy or irate if the person was acting irritated.
34
What is misattribution of arousal?
Arousal arises for one reason but receives another cognitive label, thereby producing a different reaction.
35
Which theory of emotion can explain why misattribution of arousal occurs?
Two Factor Theory
36
1. What is the "fear center" of the brain that is activated by the thalamus in certain situations?
What types of situations cause this "low road" of activation?
1. The amygdala.
| 2. Hearing a noise in the dark, seeing something scary
37
Describe how lie detector tests are suppose to work and why they are not error proof.
The suspect answers questions while changes in blood pressure, pulse, breathing rate, and skin conductance are measured.
They are not error proof because...
- some people are very good at lying and can control their physiological responses.
- other people have very active automatic nervous systems and may appear to be lying when they tell the truth.
38
What is the feel-good do-good phenomenon?
When in a good mood, we do more for others. The reverse is also true: doing good feels good.
39
What advice for booting happiness comes from the feel-good do-good phenomenon?
Focus on the needs and wishes of others
Smile and act happy
Make close relationships a priority
40
How do psychologists view happiness?
as. ..
- a mood
- an attitude
- a social phenomenon
- a cognitive filter
- a way to stay hopeful, motivated, and connected to others
41
Name 2 reasons why we are not very good at predicting how happy we will be in the future.
1. The adaptation level phenomenon
| 2. Relative deprivation principle
42
Name different types of stressors (and examples of each)
Catastrophes: Earthquake, flood
Significant life events/changes: Divorce, leaving home
Daily hassles: car problems, long lines
Social/cultural stressors: poverty, discrimination
43
Why do 2 different individuals feel different levels of stress in response to the same stressor?
Because there are different personality types. Different types of personalities predict different reactions to stress.
Type A: competitive, hard-working, impatient, prone to anger and hostility
Type B: easygoing, relaxed
44
Which theory of stress describes only the physiological response to stress?
What does this theory say happens when we are stressed?
Han Selye's: General Adaptation Syndrome
There are different phases while we are stressed...
Phase 1: Alarm - burst of energy
Phase 2: Resistance - body tries to resist or adapt to the stressor
Phase 3: Exhaustion - energy is depleted
45
What are the 3 phases of the General Adaptation Syndrome?
Phase 1: Alarm
Phase 2: Resistance
Phase 3: Exhaustion
46
Which phase in the General Adaptation Syndrome is associated with illness?
Phase 3
47
Which theory of emotion is very similar to Lazarus' appraisal model of stress, and how is it similar?
Two Factor Theory - they both have to do with cognitive appraisal (viewing a situation)
48
Name 2 ways that chronic stress can lead to chronic illness
Physiological changes and Unhealthy behaviors
49
Explain how chronic stress can lead to acute illness.
Chronic stress often reduces the ability of the immune system to fight illness.
ex.) immune systems typically weakens during Final Exam time
50
Whose research evidence demonstrated the link between stress and acute illness? Describe one of the 2 studies we discussed in class.
Kiecolt-Glaser et al (1995) : Relationship Between Stress and Wound Healing
- Female, long-term care givers to spouses with dementia
The caregivers wounds healed slower than the control group because they were under a lot of stress.
51
What behaviors make us more likely to get sick (or develop chronic illness) due to chronic stress?
```
Eating badly
No exercise
Drinking
Smoking
Sleeping poorly
```
52
What personality traits are associated with stress experience and health consequences?
Type A personality traits - competitive, hard-driving, impatient, prone to anger and hostility
53
How do we know when our efforts to cope with stress are successful?
When you stop the stressor, increase tolerance for it, decrease felt stress, or have lower physiological response.
54
What is emotion focused coping?
1. Deals with emotions caused by stress
2. May be effective when there's little control and stressor is acute.
example: distracting oneself from a problem
55
What is problem-focused coping?
1. Deals directly with the stressor
2. Requires belief in control
Example: Talking to a noisy neighbor
56
Which is better for health overall and why? Emotion-focused or problem-focused coping?
Problem-focused coping because you are taking on your problems head on instead of trying to pretend like it does not exist. However, do both at the same time is usually more effective.
57
What are the types of social support?
Receive Support: The amount of assistance individuals receive.
Perceived Support: The amount of assistance individuals believe is available to them.
58
Which type of social support is best for our health?
Perceived support
59
What is oxytocin?
Enables contractions associated with birthing, milk flow during nursing, orgasms.
Promotes pair bonding, group cohesion, and social trust.
60
What are different stress-management strategies that you can use regardless of your personality or other factors?
1. Aerobic exercise
2. Relaxation
3. Meditation and mindfulness
4. Social support - talk to friends
5. Avoid stimulants
6. Get enough sleep
61
What are different reasons why exercise works to reduce stress (and/or the effects of stress on health)?
1. Strengthens the heart and lowers blood pressure
2. Boosts endorphins, which enhance well-being
3. Concentrating on exercising can help you forget minor stressors
4. Improves sleep, which can improve coping
5. Cope with stress better
6. Exhibit more self confidence
7. Less likely to be depressed
62
How do psychologists (how do we, in class) define intelligence?
Official definition: Intelligence is the mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.
63
What are Spearman's theory of intelligence?
Does Spearman's or Gardner's theory of intelligence fit best with our definition of intelligence (and why)?
he noted high positive correlation among scores on different intelligence tests.
- Indicated single factor - g (general mental ability) and specific factors (s)
64
What is an achievement test?
A test that measures what you already have learned
ex.) literacy tests, drivers license exam, final exam in psychology course.
65
What is an aptitude test?
A test that attempts to predict your ability to learn new skills
ex.) SAT, ACT, and GRE
66
What is the difference between achievement tests and aptitude tests?
You already know the information before you take an achievement test; you do not know all of the information before taking an aptitude test.
Achievement tests are what you already know; aptitude tests are what you have the potential to learn
67
Are intelligence tests meant to be the former or the latter?
v
68
Explain how creativity can be considered part of intelligence.
Creativity uses divergent thinking which is the ability to generate new ideas, new actions, and multiple options and answers.
Creative intelligence involves using those ideas to adapt to novel situations.
69
Why can we not objectively measure creativity with intelligence tests?
Because creativity can not be measured; it is like a trait.. there is no right or wring answer when it comes to creativity. Intelligence test have right and wrong answers
70
Why does intelligence predict academic performance, job performance, and longevity?
Academic Performance:
- you can see how smart you will be in the future
- if you have high intelligence, you will most likely do good in school
Job Performance:
- facilitates acquisition of knew knowledge
- reflects "trainability"
- greater ability to adapt to new circumstances
Longevity:
- enhances individuals care of own health
- learning, reasoning, problem solving is required for preventing disease and injury and managing complex treatment regimens
71
How do you interpret a correlation between 2 variables? Give an example or two if possible.
v
72
What does an IQ score of 100 mean?
That is the average score; you have an average IQ
73
What does the normal/bell curve tell us about the frequency of different IQ levels in the population?
That it is the average IQ level for that population.
74
The intelligence quotient (IQ) is a ratio of what 2 numbers?
mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) times 100
75
Explain the Flynn Effect and what it indicates is a determinant/cause of intelligence.
vv
76
What is heritability?
The percentage of variation within a given population that is due to heredity.
77
What is stereotype threat?
A feeling that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.
78
Why does stereotype threat matter (given what we discussed in class regarding how intelligence tests are used)?
Stereotype threat may interfere with performance by making people use their working memory for worrying instead of thinking.
79
Social support can be...
Tangible, informational, and emotional
80
Why does support affect health?
1. Reduced physiological response to stress
2. Better immune system functioning
3. Socializing leads to the release of oxytocin
81
Creativity
The ability to produce ideas that are novel and valuable.
82
Convergent thinking
A left brain activity involving zeroing in on a single correct answer.
83
The worrying due to a stereotype threat is called self-confirming/fulfilling. What is self-confirming/fulfilling?
The effect of minority status on performance is worsened by worry about that effect.
84
How are concepts represented and communicated?
Via image or word
85
When does insight often occur?
After taking a break from a problem - incubation effect
86
Consider how the problem solving strategies might be used to decide:
What kind of job/ career you will chose after graduating?
Trial and Error: You apply for jobs and quit if you do not like it. You keep looking until you find the one that you like the most
Insight: You take a break from looking for jobs to focus on yourself; you realize what you want then go for it!
Algorithm: You do research that is extensive over an array of jobs and after extensive research you decide what will be best for you.
Heuristic: You do research that is brief over and array of jobs and after brief research you quickly decide what will be best for you.
87
Consider how the problem solving strategies might be used to decide:
Where you should go for your next vacation?
Trial and Error: You continually keep trying vacation spots until you find the one where you enjoy the best.
Insight: You take a break from thinking about this, then one day the perfect vacation spot come to you.
Algorithm: You do extensive research on possible vacation spots, and after this long, extensive research, you decide what will be the best place for you.
Heuristic: You do brief research on possible vacation spots, and ever a little bit of time researching, you quickly decide what will be best.
88
Consider how the problem solving strategies might be used to decide:
Deciding what present to buy your friend for his/her birthday?
Trial and Error: You ask him different questions on things that he would like and when he finally says that he likes a certain gift you buy it for him.
Insight: You do a lot of thinking, then take a break from thinking, and the perfect gift pops into your mind.
Algorithm: You study your friend for a long time, examining things that he loves, after months of studying him, you finally decide what will be the perfect gift for him.
Heuristic: You study you friend for an hour and see what he is interested in, after a short hour of studying him, you quickly decide what you think what gift he will like the best.
89
Consider how the problem solving strategies might be used to decide:
What color you should paint your room?
Trial and Error: You can continue to paint your room random colors until you find one that you like the most.
Insight: You can do test swatches on your wall and leave it there for a week, then one day when you walk into your room the perfect swatch will Stand out to you and you chose that color.
Algorithm: You think about this decision for a month, take personality tests on what you think will look best in your room, ask friends and family, then finally choose after this long process of deciding - you will be sure to have chose the correct color at this point.
Heuristic: You ask a couple people what they think, do a personality test the same day, then quickly chose; it may not be the right color though.
90
Mental Set (Define and provide at least one example and explain why it is an obstacle).
The tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked for them in the past.
- tendency to approach situations in a certain way because that method worked in the past
Example: The 9 dot problem where you have to connect the dots using a certain number of straight lines.
This is an obstacle because you can not solve every problem the same way, there are different solutions to all problems; some are the same and some are different.
91
What is the difference between functional fixedness and mental set?
Functional fixedness is the inability to use an object for something other than how it is usually used and mental set is a specific way of looking at a problem; typically where your mind is set on one way of solving it.
92
What is the difference between confirmation Bias and belief perseverance?
Confirmation bias is not bothering to seek out information that contradicts you ideas
Belief perseverance is holding on to you ideas over time, and actively rejecting information that contradicts your ideas.
93
What is activation?
The initiation or production of behavior
94
What is persistence?
Continued efforts or determination to achieve a goal.
95
What is intensity?
Great vigor in responding, often accompanying motivated behavior.
96
Instinct Theory
Certain human behaviors are innate and due to evolutionary programming.
- likely to be rooted in genes and the body
- not acquired by learning
97
Drive-reduction theory
The idea that humans are motivated to reduce these drives such as eating to reduce the feeling of hunger. This restores homeostasis, a steady internal state.
98
Arousal Theory
View that people are motivated to maintain a level of arousal that is optimal - neither too high or too low.
Behaviors:
Low arousal ---> boredom ---> motivation for stimulation
High arousal ---> overstimulation ---> motivation for calm
Curiosity is a best explained for this theory.
99
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (humanistic theory)
Maslow's pyramid of human needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active.
100
What is the order of Maslow's needs in order from bottom to top?
1. Physiological needs
2. Safety needs
3. Belongingness and Love needs
4. Esteem needs
5. Self-actualization needs (full potential of self)
6. Self-transcendence needs (meaning beyond self)
101
Self-Determination Theory (humanistic theory)
When considering a specific behavior, we are motivated to engage in it for intrinsic and extrinsic reasons.
102
According to Schachter and Singer, what 2 factors lead to our experience of emotion?
1. Physiological Arousal
| 2. Cognitive Appraisal
103
Does Spearman's or Gardner's theory of intelligence fit best with our definition of intelligence (and why)?
???
104
What is Gardner's theory of intelligence?
```
He identified 8 relatively independent intelligences
1. Naturalist
2. Linguistic
3. Logical-Mathematical
4. Musical
5. Spatial
6. Bodily-Kinesthetic
7. Intrapersonal
8. Interpersonal
Someone is intelligent in one of these areas
```
105
Social influence
Efforts by one or more individuals to change the attitudes or behavior of one or more others.
106
Conformity
Changed in perceptions, opinions, or behaviors in ways that are consistent with group norms.
- to conform is to think/behave in line with group norms
ex. ) I wear skinny jeans because moth other girls my age do too
107
Conformity motivated by a fear of social rejection
Due to normative social influence
108
Conformity motivated by the belief that others are correct
Due to informational social influence
109
What makes normative conformity less likely?
- groups of 3 people or fewer
- making private, not public judgements
- an ally who agrees with you
110
What makes normative conformity more likely?
- uncertainty about the correct answer
- a highly cohesive group
- a high status group
111
When don't we conform?
- when social or normative influence is low, people may engage in reactance.
- feel control is threatened
- behave opposite of influence
112
Obedience
When behavior is influenced due to the direct commands of an authority figure.
ex.) shock the man when he answers the question wrong
113
Why do people obey when there is authority involved?
they "must be correct" so they remove their own responsibility
114
Compliance
A form of social influence in which one or more persons accepts direct request from one or more others.
115
Mechanism of compliance
reciprocation
116
What is the mechanism of compliance: Reciprocation?
- People are more likely to comply if you've previously done something for them
117
Why does reciprocation work?
Evolution: reciprocation was essential to survival
Culture: strong social norm to reciprocate
Emotion: guilt over not reciprocating
118
What are some compliance techniques?
Foot-in-the-door and Low-ball
119
Foot-in-the-door technique
Compliance with a small request increases compliance with a larger later request
120
Low-ball technique
Costs of a purchase are concealed until commitment is made to buy t he product
ex.) asked to do a study, then you say yes, then you are told you have to wake up at 7 am for it.
121
what are some similarities between foot-in-the-door and low-ball techniques
They both have a processes of making small commitments that are followed by larger reguests
```
FITD= different requests
LB= same request; cost increases; usually only applies in monetary situations
```
122
What is a norm?
Explicit or implicit rules of conduct in a given context
123
Give an example of norms for behavior
In a daycare, it is a norm not to throw tantrums
124
Normative social influence
Conformity motivated by a fear of social rejection
ex.) girls dress like girls, boys dress like boys; drink because people are you are and you want them to like you
125
Informational social influence
Conformity motivated by the belief that others are correct
ex.) North Korean people conform because they believe their leader is correct about everything.
126
Which type of social influence best explains why participants conformed to the group and gave the clearly wrong answer to questions (about line length) in Solomon Asch's study described in class?
Informational
127
Why was Stanley Milgram's study unethical?
- He had them feel like the participants could not withdraw
- Participants were exposed to extremely stressful situations that may have the potential to cause psychological harm
- had them feeling like horrible people by causing them pain when shocking them
128
What factors decreased obedience in participants of Milgram's experiments?
1. Experimenter was in a remote location (20% ob.)
- because the authority was less imposing
2. Ordinary person is experimenter (19% ob)
- Lack of authority
3. A confederate teacher rebels (10% ob)
- role model for defiance
129
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Inconsistency between attitudes and behaviors motivates attitude change
Saying smoking is bad for you but smoking anyways (hypocrite)
130
Explain why participants obeyed the experimenter in Milgram's experiments using the cognitive dissonance theory.
The participants knew they were doing something bad but continued to do it anyways.
131
Give 2 reasons why humans feel a strong motivation to reciprocate feelings
Evolution: reciprocation was essential to survival
Culture: strong social norm to reciprocate
132
What type of social influence do foot-in-the-door and low-ball techniques represent?
compliance
133
Social loafing
Reduction in effort by individuals when they work in groups instead of alone
134
Explain how the presence of others can facilitate performance on a task
- Someone might think that since there are more people in the group, they can get away with not doing as much work and assume that everyone else will take care of it.
- break the projects into smaller parts so everyone has one small section to cover instead of doing the whole thing alone
- you have people to check your work
135
How can you prevent social loafing?
- Use peer evaluations - hold indiv. accountable
- Keep the groups small
- Limit the scope of the project - break complex projects into smaller parts
136
under what circumstance does the presence of others make performance better than usual when it comes to working in groups?
Someone with an authority figure ?
| - when people are competing against one another
137
What group does this person belong to?
Categorization
138
What is this person like? What do we expect from this person?
Stereotyping
139
How do we feel about this person?
Prejudice
140
How we be behave towards this person?
Discrimination
141
Cognitive Generalization/Categorization
The tendency to group similar things together - allows schema formation
- A basic ability that all intelligent forms of life have
- When you categorize, you ignore individual differences, and focus on similarities
142
How is understanding a person different than understanding an object?
- People have hidden, unobservable qualities
- How you treat a person may change a person
- Not just categorization, but self-definition
- ----> me vs. not me
143
Out-Group Homogeneity Effect
Tendency to perceive more variability among in-groups that out-groups
- In-group (us) = a group we belong to
- Out-group (them) = a group we don't belong to
Helps preserve stereotypes and can lead to prejudice
144
What are the perceived similarities called when you categorize?
Stereotypes
145
Discrimination
unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members
146
Prejudice
An unjustifiable, and usually negative, attitude towards a group and its members.
Generally involves...
- Stereotyped beliefs
- negative feelings
- a predisposition to discriminatory action
147
What is an in-group?
A group you belong to (us)
148
What is an out-group?
A group you do not belong to (them)
149
Why does the out-group bias not apply to our own groups?
We don't ignore individual differences when we think about our own group
- we have more opportunities to learn about individual differences with our own group
- easier to ____ specific individuals when thinking about our own group
- required to define "me" vs "not me"
150
What is the Cross-race Effect, and can it be reduced?
We have difficulty recognizing faces from another race
- after more experience with the out-group, it can be reduced
151
Confirmation bias (define and describe how each can explain why stereotypes are hard to change)
Seeing what we expect
-When you expect to see someone do something and they do it, you will continue to hold them the that stereotype. (girls suck at math example)
152
Fundamental attribution error (define and describe how each can explain why stereotypes are hard to change)
The tendency to underestimate the role of the situation and overestimate the role of personal factors in explaining other peoples behavior.
ex.) Homeless person is lazy rather than unlucky in tough job market
- When "not me" is a group, we generalize the cause of one persons behavior to an entire group which sustains stereotypes
153
Sub-typing and belief perseverance (define and describe how each can explain why stereotypes are hard to change)
We can label people who aren't consistent with stereotypes as exceptions
- prevents stereotypes from being proven false; remember belief perseverance
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Self-fulfilling Prophecies (define and describe how each can explain why stereotypes are hard to change)
A belief that leads to its own fulfillment.
ex. ) you have an expectation on what another person is like...this influences how you act towards that person...this causes people to behave in ways consistent with your original expectations.
- ????
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Group polarization (define and describe how each can explain why stereotypes are hard to change)
Shifts towards a more extreme view after a discussion.
- These people refuse to see the opposing side of the argument (stereotype)
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What do the experiments described in class suggest about how job interviews should be conducted and why?
Interviews should be held where you can not see the interviewee or hear their voice because people let these factors affect whether they get the job or not.
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What was some of the evidence from the job interview experiment?
Men who though they were talking to an attractive woman responded in a warmer manner; women in turn reacted by being warmer.
White interviewers show discomfort towards African American applicants; this caused applicants to act more nervously and be less effective.
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How has the media contributed to prejudice in out culture?
Minorities are often shown in negative ways; These biases are consistent of people in real life.
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What can enhance "contact" between 2 rivaling groups and actually reduce prejudice and discrimination?
Superordinate goals and friendship
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What are some things that you can do as an individual to reduce society prejudice and discrimination?
- Know that automatic processing occurs when we encounter a member of a stereotyped group
- Chose to ignore ro counter the stereotyped information
- Make a friend or chose to work with someone from a different cultural/ethnic group (intergroup contact)
- Be an advocate for individuals in groups commonly targeted.
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Define personality
An individuals unique, relatively consistent patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving.
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What are the 4 theories of personality discussed in class?
1. Dispositional or trait based
2. Social-cognititve
3. Psychodynamic
4. Humanistic
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Dispositional / trait based personality theory
Dispositions (trait) are relatively stable and enduring over time.
- Dispositions influence behavior
- ---> this has been debated because the 2 correlate weakly to modestly.
- Situations influence behavior
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Social-cognitive personality theory
Behavior is influenced by interaction between peoples traits and their social context.
Personality is developed through...
- emphasis on interaction of personality and situation
- active processing of information from social experiences
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Reciprocal determinism
personalities are shaped by the interaction of our personal traits, our environment, and out behavior
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The psychodynamic personality theory
Developed by Freud. His work has influenced culture and it is important to understand what he said.
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What is the idea of the unconscious mind that is part of the psychodynamic theory?
Conscious mind: Contact with the outside world
Preconscious mind: material just beneath the surface of awareness
Unconscious mind: Difficult to retrieve material; well below the surface of awareness (largest section of the mind)
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What are the divisions of personality?
Id: Irrational component, impulsive, ruled by "pleasure principle"
Ego: Rational component, mediatiing, ruled by "reality principle"
Superego: Moralistic component, internalizing parental and societal rules, "morality principle"
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The humanistic personality theory
In the 1960's, some psychologists began to reject...
- the dehumanizing ideas of Behaviorism
- the dysfunctional view of people in Psychodynamic thought
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Who was responsible for the Humanistic approach and how'd the conduct their research?
Maslow and Rogers
| - they studied healthy people rather than people with mental health issues.
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Humanism
focusing on the conditions that support healthy personal growth.
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What are some personality traits or dispositions?
Why do these traits correlate only weakly to moderately with behavior?
Kind, caring, organized.
-How you feel about something influences how you behave.
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Name the traits of OCEAN
```
Openness to experience
Conscientiousness
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
```
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Openness to experience
Tendency to be imaginative and artistic
High scorers: attentive to inner feelings, prefer variety, intellectual curiosity, experience emotions strongly
Low scorers: conventional
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Conscientiousness:
Tendency to plan, organize, and carry out tasks.
High scorers: hardworking and ambitious; careful and thorough
Low scorers: forget details, hedonistic
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Extraversion
General tendency to seek out stimulation and company of others.
High scorers: sociable and talkative
Low scorers: prefer to be alone, independent. not unhappy, just reserved.
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Agreeableness
Orientation towards others.
High scorers: more altruistic and sympathetic to others; believe in the goodness of others
Low scorers: competitive, unfriendly; skeptical of goodness of others
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Neuroticism
General tendency to experience negative emotions
High scorers: more susceptible to distress; experience more distress when under stress
Low scorers: even tempered and relaxed, calmly cope with stress.
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In what stage of psychosexual development does the Ego form?
Genital Stage (puberty and on)
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Anal retentive
Enjoyed retaining; neat and organized
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Anal expulsive
enjoyed expelling; messy and disorganized
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Projective tests
structured, systematic exposure to a standardized set of ambiguous prompts (random designs).
- designed to reveal inner dynamics/ personality traits
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Accoding to Freud, what determines an individuals personality?
human behavior is the result of the interactions among three component parts of the mind: the id, ego, and superego.
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Which other theory of personality was the Humanistic Theory developed in response to?
??/
185
According to Carl Rogers, what are the 3 main things humans need to realize their highest potential to experience positive growth?
1. Genuineness: open with feelings, transparent and self-disclosing
2. Empathy: Sharing and mirroring others' feelings, relaxing and fully expressing one's true self
3. Acceptance: offering unconditional positive regard (an attitude of total acceptance toward another person in which value is shown despite failings)
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Define psychological disorder. What are the 3 D's that characterize a disorder?
patterns of thoughts, feelings, or actions that are deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional.
Deviant, distressful, dysfunctional
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Deviant
differing from the norm
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Distressful
extreme anxiety, sorrow, or pain; causing a lot of stress
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Dysfunctional
not operating normally or properly
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What are the pros and cons of diagnosing people with mental disorders?
PROS:
Diagnoses...
- create a verbal shorthand for referring to a list of associated symptoms
- allow us to statistically study many similar cases, learning to predict outcomes
- can guide treatment choices
CONS:
- The DSM calls too many people "distorted"
- The border between a disorder and normal seems arbitrary
- Decisions about what is a disorder seem to include value judgments
- Diagnostic labels direct how we view and interpret the world.
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What seems to cause major depressive disorder?
Genetic Causes:
- Concordance rates: probability that is one member of.a twin pair has major depression, the other one does too.
- --> Identical twins: 20%
- --> Fraternal twins: 14%
Biological Causes:
- Insufficient or poorly utilized norepinephrine and/or serotonin in brain synapses
- --> Insufficient production
- --> Overly rapid re-absorbtion
- --> Insensitive receptors
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Stable vs. temporary
Stable: "ill never get over this"
Temporary: "This hurts, but I will eventually get over this"
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Global vs. specific
Global: "Without my partner, I can't seem to do anything right"
Specific: "I am having a hard time without my partner, but I will get through this. I am glad I have my family and other friends"
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internal vs. external
Internal: "our breakup was all my fault"
External: "relationships are a 2 way road; it just wasn't meant to be"
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Which types of explanations are associated with a greater chance of developing major depressive disorder?
Being a woman; especially a woman in puberty are at greater risk
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What seems to cause bipolar disorder?
```
Biological:
- very strong genetic component
Identical Twins: 80%
Fraternal Twins: 14%
---> have identified genes on chromosome 11 (a single dominant gene
```
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What are obsessions?
Intense, unwanted worries, ideas, an images that repeatedly pop up in the mind.
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What are compulsions?
A repeatedly strong feelings of "needing" to carry out an action, even though it doesn't feel like it makes sense.
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How are obsessions and compulsions different from each other?
Obsessions are thinking of something and compulsions are carrying out that action.
200
What are delusions?
false beliefs, distorted thoughts.
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What are hallucinations?
false sensory experiences; distorted perceptions.
202
How do delusions and hallucinations differ from each other and which seems more treatable with medication?
Delusions are thoughts and hallucinations are seeing or hearing something that is not there.
Usually one or the other is treated with medication; you do not know what one though.
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What are different potential causes of schizophrenia?
Brain Neurotransmitters - too much dopamine in synapses and overly sensitive receptors.
Enlarged brain ventricles
Abnormal Thalamus - May cause brain to be flooded with information and sensory input
- also a large genetic component
Prenatal exposure to virus
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Adaptation level phenomenon
When conditions improve, we are happier compared to our past condition, but we adapt to form a "new normal" level (aka hedonic treadmill)
205
relative deprivation principle
Our satisfaction is determined by our perception of others' lives, and we tend to make 'upward comparison' = we feel deprived and unsatisfied
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Why does expected happiness not manifest?
Immune neglect - we underestimate our ability to deal with negative events
Focalism - In anticipation of an event, we focus too much on the event, and not other events that matter.
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What must the symptoms be for there to be distress and dysfunction
The symptoms must be sufficiently severe to interfere with ones daily life and well being.
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What is the danger in diagnostic labels?
Labels can...
- bias perceptions and change reality
- be arbitrary and betray value judgements
- serve as self-fulfilling prophecies
- stigmatize people with disorders and add to stereotypes
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What are the 2 for sure things you must have in order to be diagnosed with honor depressive disorder?
Depressed mood most of the day and markedly low interest or pleasure in activities
