Psych1011 WEEKS 3+4 Flashcards
Biological Psychology
NEUROGENESIS
Creation of new neurons in the adult brain.
SIR CHARLES SHERRINGTON
British neuroscientist
First to hypothesize the existance of synapses (1906).
Proven right by Spanish scientist Ramon Y Cajal
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Consists of glands that release hormones.
Separate to nervous system, but interfaces with.
Cooperates with limbic system to regulate emotion.
SYNAPSE
Space between two connecting neurons through which messages are transmitted chemically.
GLIAL CELLS
Cell in the nervous system.
Astrocyte = most abundant.
Role in the formation of myelin and the blood-brain barrier, responds to injury, removes debris, enhances learning and memory.
1:1 ratio with neurons.
RESTING POTENTIAL
Electrical charge difference across the neuronal membrane when the neuron is not being stimulated or inhibited.
-60 millivolts.
AXON TERMINAL
Knoblike structure at the far end of axon.
Contains synaptic vesicles, tiny spheres of neurotransmitters.
SYNAPTIC CLEFT
A gap into which neurotransmitters are released from the axon terminals.
AGONIST & ANTAGONIST
Agonist: increases receptor site activity. Mimic.
Antagonist: decrease receptor site activity. Block.
DOPAMINE
NT that plays a critical role in the rewarding experiences that occur when we seek out or accomplish goals.
Motor function.
When we hear a joke dopamine rich areas become active.
L Dopa -> Parkinsons
Anti psychotics block dopamine action.
SEROTONIN
Mood and temperature regulation, aggression, and sleep cycles.
SSRI = serotonin-selective reuptake inhibitor.
Used to treat depression.
STEM CELLS
Have the potential to become a wide variety of specialised cells.
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)
Brain and spinal cord.
Controls the mind and behaviour.
MOTOR CORTEX
Back of the frontal lobe.
Responsible for body movement.
Each part of the motor cortex controls a specific part of the body.
Regions with more motor control = more cortical space. Like fingers.
SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX
Front of parietal lobe. Next to motor cortex (other side of central sulcus).
Sensitive to touch, including pressure, pain, and temperature.
“Matches” the motor cortex.
THALAMUS
Limbic system.
Gateway from the sense organs to the primary sensory cortex.
CEREBRAL VENTRICLES
Along with the meninges, protect the CNS.
Fluid filled pockets.
Filled with cerebrospinal fluid. Provides nutrients and cushioning.
FRONTAL LOBE
At the front. Prefrontal cortex and motor cortex.
Motor function, language and memory.
Also oversees most other brain functions - executive functioning.
ADRENALINE
Hormone produced by adrenal glands. Triggers by sympathetic N.S
Increased energy production in muscle cells. Also:
Contraction of Ht muscle and blood vessels, opening broncioles, break down fat into fatty acids, glycogen to glucose, opening pupils, inhibiting gastrointestinal secretions.
PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
Part of the autonomic nervous system.
At rest, no threat.
Increased digestion
Decreased heart rate, breathing
REFLEXES
An automatic motor response to a sensory stimulus.
Interneurons bypass the brain.
NEUROTRANSMITTER
Chemical messenger for communication from neuron to neuron.
NEURON
Nerve cell specialised for communication.
WERNICKE’S AREA
Damage leads to loss of speech comprehension. Left temporal lobe.
Wernicke’s aphasia = difficulty understanding spoken language but are able to produce sounds, phrases, and word sequences. While these utterances have the same rhythm as normal speech, they are not language because no information is conveyed
SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
Part of PNS.
CNS to body - controls movement.
Voluntary movement.
SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
Part of the autonomic system.
Fight of flight.
Triggers a variety of physical responses, helpful in a crisis.
Includes increased heart rate and respiration, perspiration. Decreased digestion.
GABA
Gamma-aminobutyric acid. One of the most common NTs. Inhibits neurons. Learning, memory, sleep. Used in antianxiety meds. Alcohol and antianxiety drugs increase GABA activity.
GLUTAMATE
One of the most common NTs.
Rapidly excites neurons.
Associated with increased learning and memory.
High doses = toxic
Schizophernia and other mental disorders.
ACETYLCHOLINE
ACh.
NT that plays a role in arousal, selective attention, sleep and memory.
Muscle contraction.
Alzheimer’s - when neurons containing ACh (and others) destroyed.
Botox blocks ACh.
NEUROPEPTIDES
Short strings of amino acids in the nervous system.
Act like NTs, but more specialised.
Endorphins, anandamide.
NEURAL PLASTICITY
Nervous system’s ability to change.
Growth of dendrites and axons.
Synaptogenesis - formation of new synapses.
Pruning - death of certain neurons and retraction of axons to remove connections that aren’t useful.
Myelination.
CEREBRAL CORTEX
Outermost part of the cerebrum (cortex = bark).
Higher brain function.
Four lobes:
Frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital.
CEREBELLUM
“Little brain”
Balance, coordination.
Recently discovered also does executive, spatial, linguistic stuff.
HYPOTHALAMUS
Limbic system, below thalamus.
Regulates and maintains constant internal bodily states including temperature.
Also regulates emotions.
Pleasure centre.
PONS
Crucial role triggering dreams.
Connects cortex to cerebellum.
Brain stem and hind brain.
MEDULLA
Regulates vital functions such as breathing, heart beat.
Damage = brain death.
Brain stem and hind brain.
AMYGDALA
Limbic system.
“Almond”
Excitement, arousal, fear.
Fear conditioning.
RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM (RAS)
Inside the brain stem.
Connects the fore brain and cerebral cortex.
Key role in arousal. Consciousness?
Increases signal to noise ration among neurons in the brain.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTIVE GLANDS
Testes - testosterone.
Ovaries - estrogen.
MONOAMINES
NTs with only one amino acid.
Norepinephrine.
Dopamine.
Seratonin.
ANANDAMIDE
Neuropeptide
Pain reduction, increase in appetite. Eating, motivation, memory, sleep.
THC binds to same receptors (found in marijuana).
NOREPINEPHRINE
Neurotransmitter.
Activate of deactivate parts of the brain.
Influence arousal and readiness to respond to stimuli.
Amphetamines increase NE.
ENDORPHINS
Neuropeptide.
Pain relief and euphoria.
Opioids mimic endorphin effects - bind to receptors.
Codine, morphine, heroin.
ABSOLUTE REFRACTORY PERIOD
Time during which another action potential is impossible.
Limits maximum firing rate.
PREFRONTAL CORTEX
Part of the frontal lobe.
Thinking, planning, language.
Broca’s Area, LHS. Language production.
Contributes to mood, personality, self awareness. Phineas Gage. Iron through face. Personality change.
CORTICAL HIERARCHIES
Info - primary sensory cortex specific to that sense.
Then - association cortex, spread through all four lobes.
BRAIN STEM
Midbrain, pons, medulla.
Located inside the cortex, at the back of the brain.
MID BRAIN
Brain stem.
Movement, tracking of visual stimuli.
Reflexes triggered by sound.
TEMPORAL LOBE
Hearing, understanding language, storing memories.
Auditory cortex.
Wernicke’s Area (LHS). Understanding speech.
Located behind ears and temples.
BASAL GANGLIA
Structures in the fore brain that help control movement.
Anticipation of pleasurable outcomes (rewards).
Sensory info -> primary association areas -> basal ganglia -> calculate course of action -> motor cortex.
Parkinson’s = damage to these.
HIPPOCAMPUS
Memory, especially spatial memory.
Bigger in taxi drivers.
Damage - problems forming new memories, old ones ok.
PARIETAL LOBE
Upper middle part of the cerebral cortex. Behind frontal lobe.
Touch and perception.
Somatosensory cortex in front.
Communicates visual and touch info to motor cortex.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
Part of PNS. Sympathetic and parasympathetic. Limbic system interacts with. Controls involuntary actions of our internal organs and glands. Emotion regulation.
SYNAPTIC VESICLE
Tiny spherical sac containing neurotransmitters.
In axon terminals, but manufactured in cell body.
DENDRITES
Extensions which receive information from other neurons.
INTERNEURONS
Neurons that send messages to other nearby neurons.
Sensory nerves -> interneurons -> motor nerves.
Reflexes.
LIMBIC SYSTEM
Highly interconnected brain regions.
Dedicated to emotions.
Also internal states such as blood pressure, heart rates.
Thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus.
OCCIPITAL LOBE
Vision. Back part of the cerebral cortex. Contains the visual cortex. More sight = more visual cortex space. Bats have small visual cortex.
CEREBRUM / FORE BRAIN
Most highly developed area.
Two hemispheres.
Largest component is the cerebral cortex.
10-20 billion neurons.
HIND BRAIN
Cerebellum, pons, medulla.
MYELIN SHEATH
Glial cells wrapped around axons that act as insulators of the neuron’s signal.
OLIGODENDROCYTE
Type of glial cell.
Promotes new connections among nerve cells and releases chemicals to aid in healing.
Produces an insulating wrapper around axons called myelin sheath.
OXYTOCIN
Hormone from the pituitary gland.
Stretching cervis and vagina during birth, aiding milk flow.
Maternal and romantic love.
PITUITARY GLAND
Controls other glands in the body.
Under control of the hypothalamus.
Variety of hormones - physical growth, blood pressure, water retention, etc.
Oxytocin - birth, breast milk, maternal and romantic love.
HORMONE
Chemical released into the blood stream that influences particular organs and glands.
Slower than neurotransmitters, but longer lasting.
CORTISOL
Hormone.
Increases in response to physical and psychological stress.
Associated with some anxiety disorders.
Regulates BP, cardiovascular function.
Body’s use of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats -> weight gain?
ADRENAL GLANDS
Tissue located on the top of the kidneys that releases adrenaline and cortisol during states of emotional arousal.
Emergency centres of the body.
SPINAL CORD
Thick bundle of nerves that conveys signals between the brain and the body.
Extends from brain stem.
Nerves extend from neurons.
Has interneurons - reflexes.
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)
Nerves in the body that extend outside the central nervous system.
Somatic and autonomic.
REUPTAKE
Halts neurotransmission.
Synaptic vesicle reabsorbs the neurotransmitters.
RECEPTOR SITE
On dendrite.
Location that uniquely recognises a neurotransmitter.
Different receptor sites recognise different neurotransmitters.
THRESHOLD
Membrane potential necessary to trigger an action potential.
ACTION POTENTIAL
Electrical impulse that travels down the axon, triggering the release of neurotransmitters.
Positive particles flow rapidly in, then out, of the axon -> release of electricity.
When reaches axon terminal = release of neurotransmitters.
AXON
Long tail-like extension from cell body of neuron.
Portion of neuron that sends signals.
CORPUS CALLOSUM
Connects the two cerebral hemispheres.
RECESSIVE GENE
Gene that is expressed only in the absence of a dominant gene.
FITNESS
Organisms capacity to pass on their genes. Behavioural adaption.
PROTEIN
Made by DNA unwinding and translating genetic message to a change of amino acids.
SINGLE GENE DISORDER
Result of a single mutated gene.
Cystic fibrosis, tay-sachs, fragile X, more.
GENOTYPE
Our genetic makeup, transmitted from parents.
PHENOTYPE
Our observable traits.
GENETIC CONDITIONS
Inherited variations
Chromosomal changes
Modification of the expression of genes - epigenetics.
Interaction between an inherited variation and other factors such as environment and other genes.
AUTOSOMAL DOMINANT INHERITANCE
Dominant variation in gene. 1/2 = condition. Condition at birth or predisposed. Affects men and women equally Includes Huntington's, cancer.
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid.
Chromosome = 2 DNA chains running in opposite directions twisted in a double helix.
Coding and non-coding DNA.
Triplets - A + G, T + C.
AUTOSOMAL RECESSIVE INHERITANCE
Recessive variation on gene of an autosome.
1/2 = usually ok, carrier.
2/2 = have condition.
Affect men and women equally.
Includes cystic fibrosis, tay-sachs, thalassamia, haemochromatosis.
X-LINKED RECESSIVE INHERITANCE
Recessive inheritance on an X chromosome.
- Men effected 1/1 as only one X
- Women 1/2 so often ok.
Includes haemophilia, some types of muscular dystrophy.
CARRIER
2 copies of every gene.
1 faulty, 1 ok.
Usually ok.
Therefore genetic carrier doesn’t have the condition.
GREGOR MENDEL
Monk 1866.
Inheritance in pea plants.
FRAGILE X SYNDROME
FMR1 gene on X chromosome -> no FMRP protein.
CGG repeat. 200 + = Fragile X.
Autism symptoms. Social anxiety, gaze aversion. Low IQ.
Increased face and emotion recognition, vocabulary.
HERITABILITY
Percentage of the variability in a trait across individuals that is due to genes.
If heritability is 80% then 20% from environment.
CHROMOSOME
Slender thread inside a cell nucleus that carries genes. Long strands of genes.
Humans have 46 in 23 pairs.
44 autosomes, 1-22 (big to small)
2 sex chromosomes X + Y
23 from mother (egg) and 23 from father (sperm).
GENOME
Full set of chromosomes and the heritable traits associated with them.
All the DNA in a cell.
Genes make up only 1% of genome.
GENE
Genetic material, composed of DNA.
In cell nucleus but also in mitochondria (in cytoplasm), outside nucleus.
Each is a “packet” of information.
Segment of DNA.
MUTATION
Variation in a gene that makes if faulty.
DOMINANT GENE
Gene that masks other genes effects.
