Psych/Soc Flashcards
Archival Research
A type of primary research that involves extracting evidence from original records.
Value-free Sociology
The view that sociologists won’t allow their personal biases affect their research.
Serial Position Effect
People are more likely to remember the first and last thing in a series.
Instinctual Drift
A phenomenon that animals (and sometimes humans) can go back to their instincts/habits after undergoing operant conditioning.
Continuous reinforcement
A type of reinforcement that UNAMBIGUOUSLY tells the individual which behavior is “right” because they are continuously getting reinforcements following good behavior.
Function of the hypothalamus
Maintain homeostasis
Functions of the thalamus
Involved in learning and memory
Function of Amygdala
Involved in regulating emotions such as anger
Function of the Basal Ganglia
Involved in coordinating smooth movements. If this area of the brain is damaged, jerky movements may occur (Ex: Huntington’s disease)
Shadowing
Allows one to test for selective attention by repeating a selective message out loud when given more than one stimulus.
Primacy Effect
When first impressions are more important than subsequent impressions.
Social Facilitation
When people perform better in front of a crowd/ public.
Approach-Approach Conflict
When you are weighing between two appealing decisions
Approach-Avoidance Conflict
Option in one decision has both pros and cons
Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict
Choosing between two sets of cons (lesser of two evils)
Double-Approach Avoidance
Conflict consists of two options and each has both pros and cons
Case Studies
Studies that usually involve interviews or reports about ONE person
Informational Influence
An influence to accept information from others as evidence of reality this can occur when you might not know what is correct for example.
Normative Influence
An influence to conform with the expectations of society and gain social approval.
What is the difference between discrimination, prejudice, and stereotyping?
Discrimination is a BEHAVIOR.
Prejudice is an ATTITUDE.
Stereotyping is a COGNITIVE BELIEF.
What is the biggest limitation of observational studies?
There are confounding variables that may be influencing the relationships observed.
Urbanization
Pattern of moving from rural areas to cities.
Hindsight bias
The tendency to believe that an event in the past was highly predictable when at the time before it occurred, it wasn’t as predictable.
Construct validity
The researchers definition of the dependent variable. Are the methods measuring what they are intended to measure?
Criterion validity
Is the variable able to predict a certain outcome. Sometimes compared to a standard or more conventional variable that predicts a similar outcome.
Sensory memory
Instantaneous and short-term memory that helps perceive the world around us.
Working memory
Mental operations performed on information in short-term memory.
Implicit memory
A type of long-term memory that helps with a certain activity or “how to do something”
Explicit memory
A type of long-term memory that refers to recalling specific pieces of information.
What type of reinforcement is most resistant to extinction?
Variable-ratio reinforcement. Overall, variable is more resistant than fixed, and ratio is more resistant than interval.
Social Capital
Potential ability to obtain resources from one’s network/connections.
James-Lange theory of emotion
A stimulus triggers a physiological response, which then leads to the subjective, conscious experience of emotion.
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
Cognitive and physiological responses to a stimulus occur simultaneously and independently of one another, with a behavioral response following them.
Schachter-Singer theory of emotion
Stimulus first leads to physiological arousal, then a cognitive interpretation of the circumstances, and finally a perception of emotion
Educational stratification vs. Educational segregation
Educational segregation describes the imbalance distribution of students in schools. Educational stratification describes the common situation where people with more resources have access to more educational opportunities
Reinforcement vs. Punishment
Reinforcement is to INCREASE a behavior. Punishment is to DECREASE a behavior.
Negative vs. Positive Reinforcement/Punishment
Negative takes away an unwanted stimulus, while positive adds an appealing or desired stimulus.
Attrition Bias
Selective dropout of participants from a study.
Response bias
Relates to self-reports, where participants are answering inaccurately. Example: Acquiescence bias (answering yes more often)
Representativeness Heuristic
Tendency to make decisions or estimate probability of an event based on our standard representation or experience with similar events.
Availability Heuristic
Tendency to make decisions about how likely an event is based on availability of similar information to you.
Confirmation bias
Tendency that people have to focus on information that agree with beliefs you already have.
Reconstructive bias
Type of bias based on memory, where our memory is not as accurate as we think especially when recalling moments of high stress
Social Desirability bias
A type of bias that occurs when people answer research questions, where participants answer in a way that makes it more socially acceptable.
Ethnocentrism
A world view where one views other cultures through the lens of their own culture
Hans Eysenck
Studies genetics of personality, specifically related to neuroticism
Abraham Maslow
Took a humanistic perspective on personality
B. F. Skinner
Took a behaviorist perspective on personality
Gordon Allport
Focused on trait perspective of personality
What are the three main high-level sociological theories of sociology?
1) Symbolic Interactionism
2) Conflict Theory
3) Functionalism
Symbolic interactionism
Focuses on the symbolic meaning that people develop and rely upon in the process of social interactions. (Ex: smoking being a symbol of trendiness or ignorance)
Conflict Theory
Sees society as in constant competition over limited resources.
Functionalism
Views society as a system of interconnected parts that carry out specific roles that enables them to cooperate to maintain social equilibrium for society as a whole
Social Constructionism
Asserts that people develop knowledge and understanding of the world through interactions with other people, primarily through language. Example, ideas about gender are constructed and transmitted through countless language-based interactions with members of the society.
Gender Schemata
Mental structures that organize incoming information according to gender categories, and in turn, lead people to perceive the world in terms of gender.
Cohort Study
A type of observational research design that follows a group to assess the impact of a risk factor of interest on health outcomes.
Case control study
An experimental design that compares a group with a condition of interest with a similar group without the condition of interest.
Cross-sectional study
Design opposite of longitudinal, where a group or event is observed at a single point in time.
Drive-reduction Theory
Idea that the primary motivation behind all human behavior is to reduce ‘drives. ‘ A ‘drive’ is a state of arousal or discomfort that is triggered by a person’s physiological or biological needs, such as hunger, thirst, and the need for warmth.
What hormones are secreted by the Anterior Pituitary Gland?
Endorphins, LH, GH, and FSH
What hormones are secreted by Posterior Pituitary Gland?
Vasopressin and oxytocin
What hormones are secreted by Adrenal Cortex?
Cortisol and aldosterone
What hormones are secreted by Adrenal medulla?
Epinephrine and norepinephrine
Retrospective vs. prospective research design
Retrospective looks at past data or records, while prospective looks at future or incoming data, records, or results
Differences in seeking medical attention between males and females
Males visit primary care doctors less frequently than females
Process of experiencing external stimulus
Stimulus is considered “distal” –> stimulus activates sensory receptor (proximal stimulus) –> Information travels through PNS via sensory neurons –> travels through CNS –> processed in the brain
Continuity
One of Gestalts Principles that states when we see objects in a line, we are more likely to perceive it as a line than individual objects
Monocular cues
Cues that can be detected with one eye: color, shape, size, height
Retinal Disparity
Cue for depth perception. A binocular cue
Weber’s Law
In terms of percentage, the just noticeable difference will be a constant proportion of original input. When given a problem, see the initial proportion in percentage, then find that percentage of the new input.
Absolute threshold vs. conscious perception
Threshold for conscious perception is always higher than absolute threshold
Contact of light with different structures of the eye
Light first contacts the cornea –> passes through anterior chamber and aqueous humor –> pupil constricts or dilates to allow enough light in through the iris’ adjustment –> corrected light passes though posterior chamber to the lens –> lens changes shape to focus light –> light passes through vitreous humor to the retina which begins the process of phototransduction
Limbic system
Hypothalamus, thalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala
Denser rod distribution
Periphery of the retina, making periphery vision best for seeing dimly-lit objects at night
Sensory homunculus
A drawing of a person where the scale of each body part is proportional to the nerve density and the relative amount of space dedicated to processing the corresponding input in the somatosensory cortex of the parietal lobe.
Piaget’s First Stage of Development
Sensorimotor Stage (birth- 2): infants experience the world through sensing and movement. At this stage, object permanence develops.
Piaget’s Second Stage of Development
Preoperational stage (2-7): Develops symbolic thinking. They tend to focus on one aspect (contraption) and lack understanding of conservation. Egocentric, they do not understand that other people have thoughts and opinions of their own.
Piaget’s Third Stage of Development
Concrete operational stage (7-12): Understand conservation and less egocentric. They also begin to understand mathematics.
Piaget’s Fourth Stage of Development
Formal Operational stage (12+): moral reasoning and understand abstract.
Erikson’s Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development
Socialization
The process of internalizing the social norms and values expected in one’s society, and mass media (such as popular music) is one source of normal socialization
Reliability
Consistency in results
Validity
Is it a true measure of the content researchers are trying to measure?
Maslow’s self-actualization Theory
A level of high achievement and personal fulfillment, in which you have done all you can and accomplished your goals to the best of your ability. According to Maslow, this can only be accomplished after an individual fulfilled their “lower needs” in the hierarchy of needs.
Skinner’s Incentive Theory
External rewards and punishments are the principal factors that drive behavior.
Folkways
Norms that govern everyday behavior.
Mores
Norms that are necessary to the welfare of a society and have consequences if violated. A moral significance.
Kinship affinity
Individuals are related by choice instead of blood (Ex: Marriage, adoption)
Consanguineal kinship
Blood or genetic relationship (Ex: Siblings, children)
Primary kinship
Direct family (Ex: parents, siblings)
Secondary kinship
Primary kin of primary kin (Ex: grandparents)
Tertiary kinship
Secondary kin of a primary kin (Ex: husband’s grandmother)
Harry Harlow’s experiment with Rhesus Monkeys
Infant monkeys preferred spending their time clinging to the Cloth Mother. Even when only the Wire Mother could provide food, the monkeys visited her just to eat. Harlow concluded that there was much more to the mother/infant relationship than milk and that this “contact comfort” was crucial to the psychological development and health of infants. After monkeys were paired with a Wire Mother, they showed abnormal behavior, which could not be corrected later in life by pairing them with a Cloth Mother.
Anomie
Breakdown of social bonds, where society feels fragmented and lacking cohesiveness.
Self-serving bias
A person interprets an event to boost their self-esteem
Social Desirability Bias
Answering survey questions in a way that one believes will be viewed favorably by others
Cognitive appraisal theory of emotion
A theory that states that our emotions are significantly impacted by our interpretation and appraisal. Two types of appraisal: Primary and secondary
Thinning in operant conditioning
Reducing frequency of rewards for an action
Primary aging
Physiological aging
Secondary aging
Aging related to behavioral factors (Ex: diet & exercise)
When is a reward given in operant conditioning?
Reward is given AFTER a BEHAVIOR in operant conditioning
General Adaptation Syndrome
Theory by Hans Selye, describing body’s short-term and long-term reactions to stress
House Money Effect
A concept where individuals tend to take more risks with money they won rather than money they invested because they think of the money won as “house money” rather than their own.
Gambler’s Fallacy
The mistaken belief that if something happens more frequently than normal over some period of time, it will happen less frequently in the future (Ex: if red shows up 5 times in a row, you guess black thinking red won’t show up as frequently)
Prisoner’s Dilemma
Example from game theory where two individuals will not cooperate even if it is in their best interests to do so
Assimilation
A strategy in which an individual seeks to interact with the new culture and reject native culture
Anomie Theory
A state of social breakdown where individuals feel alienated due to a lack of social norms and values
Relative Deprivation Theory
Individuals who perceive themselves as having fewer resources, will act in ways to obtain those resources
General Strain Theory
Individuals who experienced various negative events feel negative emotions, leading to negative behavior
Reciprocal Determinism
A theory that a person’s behavior both influences and is influences by personal factors and environment
Social Cognitive Theory
People learn from watching others; if someone were to witness someone receiving a reward for their action, they are more likely to act that way in the future
Characteristics of an ideal Bureaucracy
1) Hierarchy
2) Specialization
3) Formal rules & procedures
4) Impersonality
5) Merit-based Advancement
6) Documentation
7) Division of labor
8) Authority
Looking glass self
Society or opinions of others impacts how we see ourselves
Subculture
Groups that will have additional practices (Ex: Fan groups of a music artist)
Cultural Diffusion
When cultural elements are spread across cultures
Internalization
Type of conformity where an individual outwardly changes their opinion to match the group and personally agrees with those ideas
Functional MRI
A brain imaging technique that measures brain activity associated with changes in blood flow
Cerebellum
Primarily known for its role in motor control/ movement
Stranger Anxiety
Fear of strangers that infants begin to exhibit at ~8 months of age
Place Theory
A theory that states that one is able to hear different pitches because different sound waves trigger activity at different places along the cochlea’s basilar membrane
Reliability
The degree an assessment tool produces stable and consistent results (replicable)
Parkinson’s Disease
Associated with destruction of dopaminergic neurons in the basal ganglia
What nervous system is involved in sexual arousal (erection) in males?
Parasympathetic nervous system is responsible for sending impulses to male genitals. Damage of the Parasympathetic nervous system could cause erectile dysfunction
Leak channels in the brain
Remain open, and allow ions to “leak” or move down their concentration gradient
What sense does NOT pass through the Thalamus?
Smell is the only sense that does not pass the Thalamus and goes directly to the limbic system
What nervous system is involved in ejaculation in males?
Sympathetic nervous system. Damage to the Sympathetic nervous system could cause the parasympathetic nervous system to go unchecked, resulting in persistent erection
Base Rate Fallacy
A cognitive bias that occurs when people prioritize case-specific information over relevant statistical information
Kinesthetic Sense
Proprioception or ability to tell where body parts are in 3-dimensional space
Perceptual Narrowing
Losing the ability to discern certain stimuli from disuse. A result of Neuro plasticity. Happens in infants during development when their brains gradually become more specialized focusing on information relevant to their environment only.
Sensorimotor Stage of Piaget’s Theory of Development
0-2 years old: Infants learn object permanence
Stereotype Threat
How awareness of a stereotype can affect performance
Self-fulfilling Prophecy
A person’s belief or expectation about something influences behavior to make it true
Just-World Hypothesis
Good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people
Actor-observer Bias
The tendency to attribute others’ negative behavior to dispositional factors, but our own negative behavior to situational factors
Prejudice
An immediate or instant EMOTIONAL reaction
Envious stereotype
When regarding people with high competence but low warmth
Contemptuous stereotype
When regarding people with low competence and low warmth
Stereotype
An assumption made about a GROUP of people
Self-serving bias
Tendency to use dispositional factors to explain success and situational factors to explain negative outcomes
Halo effect
Impression in one area can affect impression in a separate area. Ex: attractiveness can affect tips earned
Institutional Discrimination
Prevalent and systematic inequality mediated by institutions (Ex: banks)
Gender Schema
How we cognitively organize what constitutes “masculinity” and “femininity”
Gender Script
Specific expectations about how an individual should act in a given situation based on gender
Proactive vs. Retroactive Social Movement
Proactive is a movement to make a certain type of change. Retroactive is a movement to prevent change
Social Reproduction
The idea that wealth inequality is inherited
Meritocracy
A system in which capable, hard-working people are rewarded with success
When does a concave mirror form a virtual image?
When the focal length > object distance
Why would counterbalancing be used in a research study?
Control for any effect that the order of presenting stimuli would have on the dependent variable
Neuroleptics
Antipsychotics used to treat Schizophrenia. Reduce positive symptoms but may exacerbate negative symptoms
How are symptoms of Schizophrenia & Alzheimer’s similar?
Both are characterized by cognitive dysfunction particularly in verbal fluency & negative priming
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
A model of the body’s stress response, consisting of 3 stages: alarm, resistance, exhaustion. An individual enters the stage of exhaustion after prolonged exposure to stressors.
Dependent stressors
Stressful events that are at least partially a result of a person’s behavior/characteristics
What side of the brain are most language-processing centers on?
The left side
What happens when someone is in a state of cognitive dissonance?
People are more likely to change their attitudes to match their behavior
Characterization of Bipolar disorders
Bipolar disorders are associated with increased levels of norepinephrine & serotonin in the brain
Criteria for Bipolar I diagnosis
Can be diagnosed with a single manic episode & does NOT require a major depressive disorder
Criteria for Bipolar II diagnosis
Requires at least one hypomanic episode and a major depressive episode
Characterization of Cyclothymic Disorder
Contains at least one hypomanic episode & dysthymia
Ingratiation
A technique where someone attempts to influence someone by becoming more likable by using flattery or conformity
Alter-casting
A persuasion technique by imposing a role on another person to encourage someone to act a certain way (Ex: A good friend would allow me to borrow their car)
Symptoms of decreased dopamine levels
Associated with Parkinson’s, so impaired muscle control and slow movement may be symptoms of decreased dopamine levels
Theory Vygotsky Developed
“Zone of proximal development” which states that skills below a child’s ability can be obtained with some support
Ego-syntonic
When a person’s personality, behavior and attitude and goals are in sync
Anhedonia
Lack of pleasure (Negative symptom for Schizophrenia & depression)
What region of the brain is responsible for balance and motor coordination?
Hindbrain
What region of the brain is responsible for memory, emotions, and high-order cognition?
Forebrain
What is the midbrain responsible for?
Sensorimotor reflexes (Ex: Startle responses)
Characteristics of short-term memory
Serial position effect & 7+/-2 effect
Characteristic of iconic or sensory memory
Ability to remember specific portion of stimuli accurately but only for a few seconds after the stimulus was presented
Looking Glass Self
When a person internalizes how other people perceive them, resulting in other people’s perception shaping their self-concept
What part of the brain is Wernicke’s area located?
Temporal lobe
What part of the brain is Broca’s Area located?
Frontal Lobe
Which cells in Seminiferous tubules produce sperm?
Sertoli cells
What behavior is observed in a fixed-interval or fixed-ratio schedule?
No response initially when the reward is given, but behavior increases closer to the time interval
Symbolic Interactionism
Interpretation! When we interpret things based on interactions and relationships in society
Back stage self
The way you act when you are not in public
The “Me” component of the self according to Mead
The socialized self that acts according to social norms
The “I” component of the self according to Mead
The impulsive, spontaneous self prior to taking social norms into account
Yerkes-Dodson Law
States that there is an optimal level of arousal necessary to perform well. If arousal is too high, poor performance can be a result
Heuristic
Cognitive rules of thumb that offer a shortcut to decision making and/or problem solving
Chunking
A strategy used to increase capacity of short-term memory by separating the information into “chunks”
Encoding Specificity
When the conditions or environment at encoding matches the conditions at retrieval, resulting in improved recall
Intersectionality
The different aspect of someone’s social background (race, ethnicity, SES) combined can provide advantages or disadvantages
Scaffolding
A more experienced individual supporting a less experienced individual
Egocentrism
Characteristic of the pre-operational stage of Piaget’s development; the child views the world from their perspective only
Display Rules
The rules that dictate cultural expectations of emotion.
Schizoid Personality Disorder
Characterized by separation, coldness, and apathy towards others
Schizotypal Personality Disorder
Less severe than schizophrenia; no hallucinations, but distrubed thought patterns and distortions that make an individual attribute significance to normal life events
Where is the amygdala located?
Temporal lobe
Primary vs. secondary appraisal
Primary appraisal: one determines if a stimulus is in fact a threat or not
Secondary appraisal: occurs if stimulus is a threat, when someone decides how to cope with a situation/threat
Retroactive interference
When old memories are changed by new ones
Thorndike’s Theory of Intelligence
States three areas of intelligence:
1) abstract intelligence: language & symbolic thinking
2) Mechanical intelligence: control bodily movements
3) Social intelligence: ability to communicate with & understand others
Galton’s theory of hereditary genius
States that intelligence is hereditary; passed from parent to offspring
Binet’s theory of mental age
Proposed intelligence quotient (IQ) based on ability to complete tasks associated with memory & problem-solving
Spearman’s theory of general intelligence
Focuses on g factor: predicts success in overall performance on mental ability tests
Iconic Memory
A type of sensory, short-term memory (visual)
Echoic Memory
A type of sensory, short-term memory (auditory)
Social Cognitive Perspective
People’s thoughts, behavior, beliefs are influenced by their social environment
Behavioral Perspective (Behaviorism)
Behavior impacted by rewards & punishments
Biological Perspective
Genetic expression and behavior are linked
Elaboration Likelihood model
Individuals that are motivated can be approached with central cues (facts, information, etc), while unmotivated individuals should be approached with peripheral cues (emotion-based & appearance)
Fecundity
The physiological capability of female members of child-bearing age to produce live offspring, usually increases due to improved health & nutrition
What type of learning are habituation and desensitization?
Non-associative learning
Primary vs. Secondary Reinforcement
Primary is an innately desirable thing (food, praise, physical contact), while secondary is learned (money, good grades)
Primary vs. secondary punishment
Primary is innately undesirable (shock, spanking), while secondary is learned (bad grades)
Taste aversion
A typical, unique example of classical conditioning where one gets sick after consuming something, and associates it long-term with illness only after a one-time exposure
Tonic Receptors
Sensory receptors that continue to produce action potentials throughout the duration of a stimulus; limited to peripheral nervous system NOT central nervous system
Absolute Threshold
Intensity of a stimulus that a human can detect 50% of the time
Projection
Projecting/attributing one’s unacceptable behaviors/thoughts to something/someone else (Ex: A cheating spouse may accuse their partner for being unfaithful)
Displacement
Taking out unacceptable thoughts/feelings on a safe target (Ex: hitting a pillow when angry)
Sublimation
Transforming an unacceptable behavior/thought to acceptable behavior to cope (EX: boxing as a hobby to vent anger)
What does electroencephalogram (EEG) measure?
Electrical signals of the cortex below the brain
What does magnetoencephalgram (MEG) measure?
Magnetic fields produced by electrical brain activity
What does positron emission tomography (PET) scan measure?
Glucose metabolism in the brain via a radio tracer attached to glucose analog
What does functional MRI (fMRI) measure?
Blood oxygenation in the brain
Fundamental Attribution error vs. actor-observer bias
Fundamental attribution error is the tendency to blame others’ behaviors on dispositional characteristics WITHOUT taking into account one’s own behavior, while actor-observer bias defines one’s behavior as external or situational factors
Gentrification
Urban redevelopment of lower-income neighborhoods that occurs due to an influx of higher-income residents
What are the three types of organizations in sociology?
1) Normative
2) Utilitarian
3) Coercive
Normative Organization
Membership is voluntary and base on shared values/ goals (Ex: Volunteering, Church group)
Utilitarian Organization
Membership is driven by compensation in the form of money, certifcation/degree (Ex: University students, employees)
Coercive Organization
Membership is involuntary
Token Economy
Utilizes secondary reinforcements (ie. gold stars) that can be exchanged for a desirable reward (ie. candy)
Identity Diffusion Status
Low commitment, low exploration: this person lacks direction and hasn’t explored options
Identity foreclosure
High commitment, low exploration: people at this level accepted an identity that has been assigned to them by parent or authority figure without contemplation/exploration
Identity moratorium
Low commitment, high exploration: people at this level are trying new activities and thinking about a career path
Identity Achievement
High commitment, high exploration: people at this level have explored their options and feel confident about who they are and the path they’ve chosen
Secularization
The diminishing social/political influence of religion in society
Modernization
Religion losing importance in society as industrialization occurs
Fundamentalism
A reaction to secularization, renewed adherence to strict, traditional religious beliefs or practices by some individuals
Power
In sociology, it is defined as ability to control and influence others
Authority
In sociology, it is defined as whether others believe that the power is legitimate
Monoamine Hypothesis
A biomedical model of depression, that hypothesizes that depression symptoms are caused by depletion of monoamine neurotransmitters (serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine)
Anhedonia
Symptom of depression. Lack of pleasure
Nucleus Accumbens
Structure is part of the reward pathway in the brain
Monamine Oxidase Inhibitor (MOAI) Mechanism of Action
An antidepressant that inhibits monoamine oxidase that breaks down serotonin in the pre-synaptic cleft.
Otolith Organs
A vestibular organ within the inner ear that detects linear acceleration
Apparent Movement
Perceiving still objects moving through an illusion
Induced Movement
Perceived movement of an object because of movement of another
Cerebrum
Responsible for voluntary movement
Cerebellum
Responsible for balance and proprioception
Borderline Personality Disorder
Characterized by instability in mood, sense of self, and relationships. Symptoms may include extreme mood reactivity, fear of abandonment, impulsive/reckless behavior, and suicidal thoughts
What theory is Durkheim associated with?
Social functionalism
Malthusian Theory of population growth
Suggests that human population grows exponentially while resources grow in a linear fashion. Population rate can be slowed by preventative checks (decrease birth rate) or positive checks (increase death rate)
Stereotype Boost
When positive stereotypes result in enhanced performance
Labeling Theory
Suggests that when someone is labeled deviant, the act of being labeled produces further deviance
