Bio/Biochem Flashcards
1
Q
Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes
A
Prokaryotes do NOT have membrane-bound organelles (such as ER, nucleus, etc). However, both Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes have a cell membrane and for some, a cell wall.
2
Q
Describe the steps of reverse transcription
A
In reverse transcription: 1) single stranded RNA is used as a template to generate a complementary DNA strand. This step requires a RNA-dependent DNA Polymerase. 2) There is temporarily an RNA-DNA double helix, but the RNA strand is degraded, and the DNA strand is used as a template to generate a complementary DNA strand to form a DNA double helix. This step requires a DNA-dependent DNA Polymerase.
3
Q
Megakaryocytes
A
Large bone marrow cells with a large nucleus that are responsible for the production of platelets necessary for normal blood clotting.
4
Q
What is a key difference between viral genetics and eukaryotic genetics?
A
Viruses are NOT diploid, meaning they have ONE copy of a gene/allele.
5
Q
What is the “fluid mosaic” model referring to
A
The fluid mosaic model is referring to two specific properties of the plasma membrane: 1) “Fluid” is the ability of certain molecules to travel laterally within the bilayer. 2) “Mosaic” refers to the presence of proteins and lipids/ other molecules scattered in its structure.
6
Q
How do double bonds impact fluidity of plasma membrane?
A
More double bonds, more fluid a membrane is due to kinks.
7
Q
Lytic vs. Lysogenic cycle
A
In the lytic cycle, the bacteriophage actively copies its genetic material, resulting in the lysing of the host cell. While, lysogenic cycle is a dormant stage, where the bacteriophage incorporates its DNA in the host genome to be activated later.
8
Q
What is the impact of a stimulant, like cocaine, on glucose metabolism?
A
Since a stimulant such as cocaine, stimulates the CNS, it increases glucose metabolism in the brain. This effect is similar to the effect of stress!
9
Q
Sympatric speciation
A
When reproductive isolation occurs without physical barriers
10
Q
Allopatric speciation
A
When physical barriers cause reproductive isolation
11
Q
Genetic bottleneck
A
When a reduction in the gene pool diversity occurs due a REDUCTION in population SIZE
12
Q
Non-sense vs. missense mutation
A
Non-sense mutation occurs due to a premature STOP codon (UAG, UGA, UAA). Missense mutation is when one amino acid replaces another.
13
Q
Adaptive radiation
A
When distinct species that play distinct ecological roles arise from a single ancestor
14
Q
Five conditions of Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
A
- Large breeding population
- Random mating
- No immigration
- No mutations that change overall allele frequencies
- No natural selection
15
Q
What direction does water move towards in osmosis?
A
Water moves towards greater osmotic pressure
16
Q
Function of the Loop of Henle
A
Loop of Henle is a structure of nephrons (filtering cells in the kidney) that rely on Sodium pump to reabsorb sodium ions and make concentrated urine.
17
Q
What Histone proteins are present in human nucleosomes?
A
H1, H2A, H3, and H4 are histones present in human nucleosomes. However, H1 is outside the bead structure of histones, because their role is to hold the DNA in place & provide stability for the structure.
18
Q
What is the difference between Chromatin and nucleosomes?
A
Nucleosomes refers to the DNA-Histone subunits, while Chromatin is fully-packaged DNA.
19
Q
How are euchromatin and heterochromatin viewed under a light microscope?
A
The lightly-packaged euchromatin is viewed lighter under a light microscope, while the more condensed heterochromatin is viewed darker.
20
Q
What is the shape of a rate vs. pH graph for enzymes?
A
Parabolic- indicated that enzyme activity is optimal at a certain pH, but once the optimal pH is surpassed, the enzyme declines in function.
21
Q
How is urea formed?
A
Urea is formed through amino acid metabolism. An enzyme called aminotransferase, replaces the amine group with a carboxyl or carbonyl group, and the free amine group becomes ammonia (NH3). Ammonia is a toxic metabolite that the liver and kidneys transfer to urea (CH4N2O) through combining it with CO2.
22
Q
What direction do charged AAs travel in an isoelectric gel?
A
Positively charged AAs move towards cathode, while negatively charged AAs move towards anode.
23
Q
Homologous Structures
A
Evolved from a common ancestor but now serve a different function (Ex: forelimbs of mammals such as humans, walruses, bats)
24
Q
Analogous structure
A
Evolved individually but serve similar functions (Ex: wings of insects and bats)
25
What is the function of many plasma proteins in blood buffering?
Proteins with acidic or basic side chains can serve as Bronsted-Lowry bases and acids, absorbing or releasing protons, reducing shifts in pH.
26
What does Cholesterol do to plasma membrane at physiological temperature?
Similar to at high temperatures, increasing cholesterol at physiological temperature increases membrane rigidity.
27
How does glycolysis in cancerous cells differ than normal cells?
Cancer cells have a higher rate of glycolysis in comparison to normal cells because they require more energy to proliferate uncontrollably.
28
Why does a decrease in the number of alveoli in the lungs lead to respiratory distress?
The reduction in surface area in the lungs due to the reduction of alveoli reduces the rate at which O2 and CO2 can diffuse through lunch epithelium.
29
What biological processes process quicker due to surface area?
1. Large number of alveolar sacs in the lungs.
2. Presence of microvilli in the small intestine.
3. Folding of the inner mitochondrial membrane.
30
When given a single-stranded DNA, how will the percent composition of the complementary bases differ from double stranded DNA?
In a single-stranded DNA, the complementary bases would not have equal % composition.
31
What happens when there is a deficiency in fatty acid catabolism (break down)?
There will be an abundance of fatty acids in our system, and less fatty acids can be broken down for energy production, so glucose is relied on for energy production --> less glucose in the blood because more is broken down. At a systematic level, since fatty acids are not broken down, they are stored in the liver and adipose tissue, likely leading to fatty liver disease.
32
What happens when Insulin is administered or injected into the bloodstream?
Think of insulin as causing the body to build up large molecules (glycogen and lipids) to store energy. Therefore, if there is enough blood sugar, then insulin would promote glycogen storage, or storage of energy in the form of lipids.
33
What is the function of Troponin?
Troponin is a complex of three proteins (Troponin I, C, and T) and is required for contraction of skeletal and cardiac muscles.
34
What travels towards the anode and cathode in electrophoresis?
The anode is positive, so negatively charged residues would migrate towards it. The cathode is negative, so positively charged residues would migrate towards it.
35
Difference between single & double-crossover events
In a double-crossover event, the arms of homologous chromosomes cross twice, so it involves the middle section of chromosomal arms. While single-crossover only occurs once, so it only involves the ends of chromosomal arms.
36
Why are mitochondrial diseases only inherited maternally?
Mitochondrial diseases are always a result of the child inheriting mitochondria from the ova (female gamete). In a fertilized egg, the mitochondria of ova predominate due to their much larger numbers compared to the mitochondria of sperm. Sperm mitochondria are also associated with ubiquitin protein which causes them to be targeted for destruction post-fertilization.
37
What is the function of aldosterone?
Aldosterone, released by the adrenal cortex, is released in response to low blood pressure. Its primary function is to increase sodium reabsorption in the distal tubule and collecting duct
38
What is internalization in the context of biological systems?
Internalization implies that it is NOT expressed on the cell membrane.
39
Which amino acids are most susceptible to phosphorylation?
The amino acids most prone to phsophorylation are Serine (S), Tyrosine (Y), Threonine (T) due to the presence of an OH group.
40
What does phosphomimetic mean?
Mimics a phosphate group, so think negatively charged at physiological pH.
41
Difference between innate and adaptive immunity
The innate immune system is characterized by inflammation that serves as a general response to injection or injury. Adaptive immune system protects against specific pathogens that the body has been exposed to prior.
42
Totipotent stem cells
Stem cells that are capable of differentiating into all embryonic and adult lineages. (Ex: Zygote)
43
Pluripotent stem cells
Able to differentiate into all three of the basic embryonic body layers (ectoderm, endoderm, mesoderm) (Ex: Embryonic stem cells)
44
Multipotent stem cells
Stem cells able to differentiate into multiple specialized cell types in a specific tissue or organ. (Ex: Mesenchymal stem cells)
45
What results can be inferred from a cross-sectional study?
Cross-sectional studies are observational studies at a single point in time. Only causal relationships can be concluded.
46
What results can be inferred from an experimental study?
Causal relationships can be inferred if experimental study is well controlled.
47
What happens in paralyzed patients?
The pathway is not intact and efferent signaling is interrupted. This occurs if spinal cord transection occurred (cutting and nerve damage)
48
What happens in spinal cord injuries?
The motor cortex is still intact so muscles can still move
49
What is the pathway from Central Nervous to peripheral?
Cerebral cortex --> spinal cord --> motor neurons (efferent neurons) --> skeletal muscle cells
50
Guanine Structure
Purine = 2 rings
51
Adenine Structure
Purine = 2 rings
52
Cytosine Structure
Pyrimidine = 1 ring
53
Thymine Structure
Pyrimidine = 1 ring
54
Uracil Structure
Pyrimidine = 1 ring
55
Apoenzyme
An enzyme that is devoid of its necessary cofactors and is catalytically inactive
56
Enzyme responsible for the last step of Glycolysis
Converting PEP to pyruvate is done by Pyruvate Kinase
57
What step of Citric Acid produces GTP
Conversion of succinyl-CoA to succinate
58
How do you determine a reversible step when given Gibbs Free Energy?
The reaction with an absolute value closest to 0 is considered reversible
59
Complex II in ETC
Only complex that does NOT contribute to proton gradient. Primary function is to oxidize FADH2 and reduce ubiquinone. Hypothesized to reduce production of reactive oxygen species
60
Ubiquinone or Coenzyme Q (CoQ)
Serves as mobile electron carrier, facilitating the transfer of electrons to Complex III & helps facilitate proton pumping, contributing to the gradient by pumping 4 protons into inter- membrane space
61
Why are diseases associated with splicing so rare?
Splicing is critical for survival, so mutations in core splicing machinery do not allow development of an organism
62
Relationship between Prokaryotic RNA polymerases and human DNA
Prokaryotic RNA Polymerases can transcribe human DNA
63
Acidosis
When blood pH is below a 7.35
64
Alkalosis or Alkaline
When blood pH is above a 7.45
65
What happens when people hyperventilate?
Respiratory rate increases, so more CO2 is blown off, making the blood more alkaline. Breathing into a bag and re-breathing the air helps some of that CO2 return in your system
66
Adrenal Medulla
Located on top of each kidney. Produces amino-acid derived hormones, norepinephrine and epinephrine
67
Adrenal Cortex
Located on the outer parts of the adrenal medulla. Produces corticosteroids, which are involved in stress response and circadian Rhythm,
68
Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
Regulates fluid homeostasis
69
Which part of the endocrine system releases Oxytocin?
Posterior pituitary gland
70
Posterior Pituitary Gland
Secretes oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
71
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or vasopressin
Regulates water balance by increasing water retention when blood osmolarity is too high or blood volume is low. Reduces blood osmolarity & increases blood pressure
72
High osmolarity
High salt concentration
73
Which organelles are involved in peptide hormone synthesis?
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum & Golgi apparatus (for modifications)
74
Aldosterone function
When blood pressure drop is detected, special cells in Juxtaglomerular apparatus of the distal tubule secretes renin --> Renin triggers angiotensin I, II, and III --> Causes adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone --> increase membrane proteins absorbing sodium and secreting potassium
75
Uvula
Works with the soft palate to prevent backflow of food and liquid into nasal cavity
76
Epiglottis
A cartilage flap that shields the larynx from entrance of food and liquid when someone swallows
77
Residual Volume in Respiration
The minimum volume of lungs under maximum intrapleural pressure
78
Find the difference between the minimum and maximum lung volume for an individual with a given weight
subtract the given minimum volume in mL/kg from the maximum volume (mL/kg) and multiply that by the weight to get an answer in volume (mL)
79
Interphase
Includes G0, G1, S, and G2 phase prior to Mitosis/ Meiosis (M Phase)
80
Directionality of peptide
N terminus to C terminus. If a residue is labeled in chronological order, the smaller number is closer to the N terminus or the "beginning" of a peptide
81
Characteristic of anomers
Anomers are a form of epimers which are diastereomers because they differ at one stereocenter only
82
What component of the ETC is reduced and never oxidized?
Oxygen is reduced to H2O at the end of the ETC. Remember, O2 is an oxidizing agent so it is unlikely for it to be oxidized itself
83
Suicide Inhibitor
When an inhibitor binds irreversibly to an enzyme via covalent bonding
84
Competitive Enzyme Inhibitor
Decreases reaction rate by binding to the active site and preventing the substrate to bind
85
Noncompetitive Enzyme Inhibitor
Decreases reaction rate by binding to enzyme and altering the structure of its active site
86
Homotropic Regulation
A type of allosteric regulation when the binding of one molecule affects enzyme activity and binding of other substrate binding
87
Eicosanoids
A large family of lipids derived from arachidonic acid. Examples of Eicosanoids include prostaglandins, which is a signaling molecule that plays a role in inflammation & thromboxanes involved in clotting cascade
88
Vmax in Michaelis-Menten Curve
The maximum rate of the reaction when the enzyme is saturated with a substrate. Remember: an answer cannot exceed the Vmax!
89
Do bacterial cells contain introns?
Majority of bacterial cells DO NOT contain introns
90
A structure within the cell membrane that is similar to gap junctions
Transmembrane proteins (usually glycoproteins) since they pass through the membrane and facilitate transport
91
Allosteric Inhibition
When an inhibitor binds to an enzyme covalently but NOT at the active site. Usually if the inhibitor and substrate have very different structures they may be an allosteric inhibitor
92
End product of Meiosis I
2 haploid cells with 23 chromosomes that go on to produce gametes
93
Competitive Inhibitors effect on Vmax and Km
Competitive inhibitors increase Km while Vmax remains unchanged. In a Line-Weaver Burk plot, the X-axis is -1/Km, so as Km increases it will get closer to 0
94
Which embryonic layer is the nervous system derived from?
Ectoderm
95
What is the difference between fetal hemoglobin and adult hemoglobin?
Fetal hemoglobin has a greater affinity for oxygen than adult hemoglobin. For that reason, it is used as a potential treatment for sickle-cell disease
96
Follicular Phase in Ovarian Cycle
Overlaps with the menses and proliferative phase in uterine cycle. This phase is when the follicle matures to an ova
97
When are LH and FSH levels increased during female reproductive cycle
FSH and LH are increased in the middle of the ovarian cycle
98
Broca's Area
Area of the brain responsible for speech formation
99
Wernicke's Area
Area of the brain responsible for speech comprehension
100
Result of damage to the arcuate fasciculus area of the brain
Inability to repeat words heard but spontaneous word production is intact
101
Superior Temporal Gyrus
Area of the brain where Wernicke's Area is located
102
Hinge Joints
Allows for movement in only one plane (Ex: joints in the elbow)
103
Gliding Joints
Common at the junction between flat bones and allow the bones to slide past one another (Ex: synovial joints between vertebrae in spinal column)
104
Ball and Socket Joint
Permits the greatest range of motion and allows for 360 degrees of rotation sometimes (Ex: Hips and shoulders)
105
Saddle Joint
Formed between reciprocal concave and convex bones (Ex: Joints in the Thumb)
106
Which lipoprotein has the highest lipid to protein content?
"Very low density lipoprotein" (VLDL) and Chylomicron
107
Journey of newly synthesized Chylomicron
intestinal epithelium --> lacteals --> lymphatic vessels --> adipose tissue --> liver where their remains are recycled
108
Lacteals
Blood vessels that drain into the lymphatic system. When chylomicrons are newly synthesized in the small intestine, they enter lacteals
109
What reaction cleaves disulfide bonds?
Reduction reactions
110
Functions of lipids
1) Store energy
2) Serve as precursor for hormones (cholesterol)
3) Insulate
4) Generate heat
111
Where is sperm produced?
Seminiferous tubules
112
Epididymis
After it's produced in the seminiferous tubules, sperm is developed and gains motility in the epididymis.
113
Pathway of sperm through male reproductive system
seminiferous tubules –> epididymis –> vas deferens –> ejaculatory duct –> urethra –> penis.
114
What type of cells are ovarian cells?
Epithelial cells
115
Dissociation constant (Kd)
A measurement of affinity between two biomolecules. Lower Kd corresponds to higher affinity
116
Phosphodiester bonds
Link adjacent nucleotides in DNA
117
Uncompetitive inhibitors
Reduce BOTH Km and Vmax. Uncompetitive inhibitors only bind target enzymes when the substrate binds to the enzyme first
118
How are Lactones formed?
Via intramolecular nucleophilic attack
119
Functions of NADPH
1) Involved in biosynthesis of lipids & cholesterol
2) Production of bactericidal bleach in lysosomes of some white blood cells
3) Maintenance of supply of reduced Glutathione for protection against free radical damage
120
What is unique about the inner mitochondrial membrane?
It lacks cholesterol
121
Osteoblasts
Specialized cells that form new bones & add growth to existing bones by absorbing excess calcium in the bloodstream
122
Osteoclasts
Specialized cells that dissolve damaged bones so osteoblasts can make new bones. INCREASE Calcium levels in bloodstream
123
What is the role of Calcitonin?
"Tones down" blood calcium levels by activating osteoblasts
124
What is derived from the neural tube during neurulation?
The brain, spinal cord, and neural crest cells (which become neurons, pigment cells, etc)
125
Where are MOTILE cilia found?
In the uterine lining (helps egg move through fallopian tube) and trachea
126
Where is the 5' and 3' located on a single nucleotide?
The 5' end is the 5th carbon of the pentose sugar that is linked to phosphate group via phosphodiester bonds. 3' end is the 3rd carbon bound to hydroxyl group which would participate in a phosphodiester bond when linked to another nucleotide
127
How do phosphatases remove phosphate groups?
Via hydrolysis, so they are a subset of hydrolases
128
Characteristic of Cytochrome C in ETC
Highly water-soluble (polar) protein
129
What other hormones, beside, glucagon, increase blood glucose levels?
Cortisol & Epinephrine
130
Effects of Aldosterone secretion
When Aldoesterone is released from adrenal cortex, it triggers the reabsorption of Na+ ions and H2O into the bloodstream. To stabilize K+/Na+, as Na+ is reabsorbed into the bloodstream, K+ decreases.
131
Post-translational modifications
Ubiquitination, glycosylation, phosphorylation and methylation
132
Post-transcriptional modifications
Capping, polyadenylation (Poly-A tail), splicing
133
What interactions are responsible for secondary structures of proteins?
Hydrogen bonding between amino acid back bones. Side chain interactions are responsible for tertiary and quaternary structures
134
Passive immunity
The transfer of humoral immunity in the form of ready-made antibodies from one individual to another (Ex: mother to fetus)
135
Microtubule depolymerization
Responsible for separating chromosomes during Anaphase in mitosis and Meiosis I and II
136
How do you determine the efficiency of an enzyme?
Kcat/Km, where Vmax = kcat[Enzyme]
137
Which enzyme breaks down glycogen to glucose?
Glycogen Phosphorylase
138
What are the glycosidic bonds between glucose monosaccharides in glycogen?
alpha (1-4) linearly and alpha (1,6) branched
139
How is Tm or melting temperature defined for nucleotides specifically?
Melting temperature for nucleotides is the temperature at which 50% of the DNA is unfolded into a single strand
140
Degeneracy or Degenerate Codon
Refers to more than one codon coding for the same amino acid
141
What metabolic pathways can happen in the presence and absence of oxygen?
Glycolysis & Gluconeogenesis
142
Characteristics of Skeletal muscle cells
Multi-nucleated, striated, and voluntary (bones and cartilage, also include the upper third of the esophagus and the pharynx)
143
Characteristic of cardiac muscle cells
Mono-nucleated, striated, and involuntary
144
Characteristic of smooth muscle cells
Mono-nucleated, unstriated and involuntary (Visceral organs like stomach)
145
Why is the fetal circulation designed the way it is?
To bypass the fetal lungs
146
Adult vs. fetal circulation
The right side of the fetal heart is more pressurized than the left side during prenatal development, allowing oxygenated blood to shunt from pulmonary circulation to systematic circulation through foramen ovale & ductus arteriosus
147
What direction is the template strand read in by DNA Polymerase?
3' to 5'
148
What is the "sense" strand?
The coding strand, so the mRNA sequence would be identical in direction and bases, with the exception of Uracil instead of Thymine. Antisense is the opposite in direction
149
DNA Polymerase Exonuclease Activity
Proofreading mechanism done by DNA polymerase, where it can replace mismatched bases in the 3' to 5' direction
150
Polygenic
A gene whose individual effect is too small to be observed, but can act together with others to produce an observable variation (Ex: Group of 5 ADH enzymes)
151
Polycistronic
When a single mRNA can encode more than one polypeptide separately within same RNA (Characteristic of bacterial genome)
152
How does test-crossing in genotyping work?
To determine the organism with a dominant phenotype, you cross it with an organism that is homozygous recessive for allele of interest
153
Facultative aerobe
Can use oxygen as final electron acceptor in aerobic respiration & can survive in anaerobic environment
154
Obligate aerobe
Requires oxygen to survive
155
Obligate anaerobe
Cannot survive in the presence of oxygen
156
Facultative anaerobe
Can survive in the presence of oxygen but cannot undergo aerobic respiration
157
What ion channels are responsible for maintaining resting membrane potential?
Ungated or leakage ion channels
158
How do Chylomicrons and VLDLs differ?
Both transport triacylglycerol & contain apolipoproteins but Chylomicrons originated in the intestine, while VLDLs originate in liver
159
Role of peptidyl transferase in protein synthesis
Catalyzes peptide bonds between amino acids
160
Chaperone proteins
Hold together proteins into their tertiary structures
161
Exocrine Glands
Glands that secrete molecules (non-hormones) onto the exterior surface of the skin or lungs, stomach, etc (Ex: tears, bile, digestive enzymes)
162
Transamination
An amino group is transferred from from an amino acid to a-ketoglutarate to synthesize glutamate
163
Characteristics of Prokaryotes (Bacteria vs. Archaea)
Both domains are unicellular, have circular chromosome, reproduce via binary fission, but Archaea does NOT contain cell wall with peptidoglycan
164
Digestive Tract Pathway
Mouth --> Esophagus --> Stomach --> Small intestine (duodenum --> jejunam --> ileum) --> Large intestine (cecum --> colon --> rectum)
165
Terpenes
Precursors in cholesterol and steroid hormone synthesis
166
Prostaglandins
Nonhydrolyzable lipids & a type of eicosanoids involved in localized inflammatory response
167
What happens when inspiratory muscles contract?
Inspiratory (inspiration/inhalation) muscle contractions result in negative intrathoracic pressure that results in lung expansion
168
What happens when expiratory muscles contract?
Expiratory (exhalation) muscle contractions result in positive intrathoracic pressure
169
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy
Attempts to change negative beliefs/thoughts & maladaptive behaviors
170
Humanistic Therapy
An optimistic approach to empower the individual with self-actualization and personal growth
171
Psychoanalytic Therapy
Attempts to uncover unconscious conflicts rooted in childhood that impacts behavior
172
Sphingolipids
Structural lipids that help influence the fluidity and structure of biological membranes. The sphingosine backbone contains one hydrolyzable bond with at the amide group
173
Compare the right and left ventricle
The right ventricle has thinner walls because it pumps blood with less pressure since it is only pumped to the lungs than the left ventricle that pumps blood to all tissues in the body
174
Difference between fetal & adult circulation
Fetal circulation is pumped from the pulmonary circulation to systemic circulation, since, unlike adults, the right side of the fetal heart pumps blood with greater pressure than the left side
175
How do uncompetitive inhibitors affect Km and Vmax
Both decrease by the SAME factor, so the Vmax/Km ratio remains unchanged
176
Kcat in enzyme kinetics
Also known as turnover number, and is the number of substrates an active site can convert into products per unit time. It is = Vmax/ [total enzyme]
177
Oligodendrocytes
Produce myelin sheath
178
Structure of GPCRs
Single subunit consisting of seven membrane-spanning alpha helices
179
Explain for partial pressure of oxygen in alveoli and alveolar capillaries drive gas exchange
Since oxygen diffuses from the alveoli to alveolar capillaries, the partial pressure of oxygen in the alveoli must be greater than the partial pressure of oxygen in alveolar capillaries
180
Embryonic Development (Starting from Zygote)
1) Zygote: diploid formed from the fusion of two haploid gametes
2) Morula: zygote divides via cleavage, resulting in this solid ball of embryonic cells
3) Blastula: morula develops a fluid-filled cavity, forming this hollow, sphere of cells with a fluid-filled center
4) Gastrula: cells begin to differentiate into the primary germ layers
181
Cancellous Bone
"Spongy Bone" contains a lattice structure composed of trabeculae spicules with the space between them filled with bone marrow
182
Asp
Aspartic Acid
183
Asn
Asparagine
184
Glu
Glutamate
185
Gln
Glutamine
186
Where do transcription factors bind?
Promoter region on DNA
187
How to calculate the number of different possible gametes in the cell?
2^n, where n = haploid number
188
Hydropathy
Hydrophobic
189
What is the dependent variable in a Michaelis-Menten kinetic parameters
Think of the graph- since it is velocity vs. substrate, initial velocity is the dependent variable measured to determine Vmax and Km
