PSYCH/SOC Flashcards
1
Q
what does Gestalt psychology state
A
the mind processes the whole of a perception rather than the sum of its parts, but makes no value judgment about more or less than
2
Q
what is the just noticeable difference
A
the amount of change required to register in one’s perception of a stimulus
3
Q
what is Weber’s Law
A
the difference threshold divided by the initial stimulus is a constant for that person
- can be used for dosage increases (will always be proportional to initial dosage)
4
Q
what is retinal disparity
A
since we have two eyes (binocular vision), we get slightly different views of objects in the world around us
- gives us some degree of depth
5
Q
what is convergence
A
when you look at far away objects, your eye muscles are relaxed
when you look at close objects, your eye muscles contract and turn towards the object
gives us another metric of depth (how contracted or relaxed our eye muscles are)
6
Q
what are some monocular cues (can be present even with monocular vision)
A
relative size, interposition, relative height, shading/contour, and motion parallax
7
Q
what is relative size
A
the size of an object can tell us how close or far away it is
8
Q
what is interposition
A
cue where if an object partially obscures another object, we are aware that that object is closer
9
Q
what is relative height
A
we perceive objects that are higher to be farther away
10
Q
what are some binocular visual cues
A
retinal disparity and convergence
11
Q
what is motion parallax
A
objects that are closer appear to be moving faster than objects that are farther away
12
Q
what is size constancy
A
we know that objects stay the same size as they move through space (appear bigger/smaller only because of distance)
13
Q
what are the three types of visual constancy
A
size, shape, and color
14
Q
what is escape learning vs avoidance learning
A
escape learning - current undesirable stimulus removed
avoidance learning - future undesirable stimulus prevented
15
Q
Broca area is associated with language _________ and Wernicke area is associated with language ________
A
production ; comprehension
16
Q
what’s the difference between operant conditioning and classical conditioning
A
operant conditioning pairs a behavior with a punishment or reward while classical conditioning pairs a behavior with an arbitrary stimulus
17
Q
what are the three types of population pyramids
A
expanding, stationary, contracting
18
Q
which type of population pyramid represents a declining population
A
contracting
19
Q
what is social capital
A
the connections within one’s social network that can help one advance
20
Q
what is cultural capital
A
the nonfinancial and nonsocial assets that confer advantage in society (like a degree from a prestigious institution)
21
Q
In Mead’s theory of identity, when do the ‘me’ and ‘I’ develop
A
the ‘I’ develops in the preparatory and play stages and is fully developed when the children can understand themselves as individuals separate from others
the ‘me’ develops in the game stage (school-age) and is developed when children can see themselves from the perspective of a generalized other (formed through social interactions)
22
Q
what happens in the preparatory stage of Mead’s theory
A
children imitate others and begin using symbols and language without any comprehension
23
Q
what happens in the play stage of Mead’s theory
A
children begin role-taking (like playing doctor) and can understand themselves as individuals separate from others
24
Q
what happens in the game stage of Mead’s theory
A
through social interactions, children become aware of their place/role in society and begin incorporating values and rules
25
__________ social mobility occurs within a single generation and _________ social mobility occurs over multiple generations
intragenerational ; intergenerational
26
what is group polarization
occurs when group members adopt a more extreme attitude or course of action after group discussion
- more likely to occur if group members have similar opinions before discussion
27
what is social mobility
the movement of individuals, groups, or families between or within status categories in society
28
what is assimilation
the process of an individual or group learning a new set of cultural norms/behavior
29
what is conflict theory
the process by which competing groups vie for limited resources
30
what is the hierarchy of salience
theory that individuals will hold identities that are higher in their hierarchy, or more important, as more relevant in a particular situation
31
what are primary circular reactions
involve repetitive behavior centered on the child's body that the child finds soothing
- sucking on thumb
- repeating syllables
32
what are secondary circular reactions
involve repetitive behavior which involves and affects the child's environment
- banging fist on wall
33
what are social networks
observable patterns of social relationships among individuals or groups
34
what is a subliminal threshold
refers to stimuli below the threshold of conscious perception
35
what is fluid intelligence
the ability to solve new problems with creative methods
36
what is crystallized intelligence
a vast accumulated set of skills and knowledge
37
what is stage 1 of the demographic transition model
pre-industrial stage
- population is stable with both high birth and death rates
- death rates are high because of disease/poor sanitation and little medical care/food supplies
38
what is stage 2 of the demographic transition model
societal improvements in healthcare, sanitation, nutrition, and wages
- population growth with decreased death rates and stable birth rates
39
what is stage 3 of the demographic transition model
transition from an agricultural to an industrialized society
- population growth begins to level off as both birth and death rates fall
40
what is stage 4 of the demographic transition model
an industrialized society with a low birth and death rate
- stable population size allows for a growing share of the population to consist of people 65 or older
41
what is stage 5 of the demographic transition model
a newly theorized stage described as a continued drop in birth rates which fall below the death rate resulting in a population decline
42
the hippocampus is associated with
memory and learning
43
the amygdala is associated with
fear and emotion
44
the hypothalamus is associated with
controlling homeostatic and endocrine functions through the release of pituitary hormones
45
the medulla oblongata is associated with
regulating vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure
46
what is deindividuation
a loss of self-awareness that may occur when people are in a group
- people may feel anonymous, lose their self-identity, and may engage in anti-normative behavior
47
what is social loafing
the tendency of individuals to put in less effort when in a group setting than individually
48
what is social facilitation
the phenomenon that people tend to perform better on simple tasks when in the presence of others because they know they are being watched
- performance is hindered on more difficult tasks or tasks you haven't practiced
49
alcohol is a depressant or stimulant?
depressant
50
do stimulants result in increased or decreased reuptake of neurotransmitters at the synaptic cleft?
decreased
51
what is Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome
syndrome caused by a thiamine deficiency, associated with alcohol consumption
52
alcohol leads to an increase in the ______ receptor which does what
GABA ; a chlorine channel that causes hyperpolarization of the membrane
53
what is self-efficacy
our belief in our ability to succeed
54
what are 2 reasons for conformity
Informative influence - look to group for guidance when you don't know what to do
Normative influence - even if you know what's right, you do what group does to avoid social rejection
55
How do you publically versus privately conform?
public - outwardly changing but you maintain core beliefs
private - change behaviors to align with group
56
what is conformation bias
tendency to search for and interpret information that supports one's prior belief
57
conformity is _________ while obedience is ___________
matching one's attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group or societal norms ; changing one's behavior in response to a direct order from authority
58
what are the 2 types of conformity
Internalization - changing one's behavior to fit with a group while also privately agreeing with the ideas of the group (stanford prison experiment)
Identification - outward acceptance of others' ideas without personally taking on these ideas
59
what is compliance
a change in behavior based on a direct request
- situations where we do a behavior to get a reward or avoid a punishment
- person asking typically has no real authority
60
what is anomie
a lack of social norms or the breakdown of social bonds between an individual and his community ties
- can lead to feelings of alienation or a fragmentation of social identity
61
what is normative vs informational social influence
normative - we comply with social norms to gain respect/support of our peers (might internally believe something different)
informational - we conform because we feel others are more knowledgeable than us
62
what is the just-world hypothesis
the tendency to believe that the world is just and people get what they deserve
63
what is self-serving bias
the tendency to attribute our successes to internal factors and our failures to external factors
64
what is fundamental attribution error
tendency to overemphasize personal characteristics and underemphasize situational factors when judging the actions of others
65
what is the diffusion of responsibility theory
aspect of bystander effect
- as the number of bystander increases, the personal responsibility an individual feels decreases
66
T or F: risk taking is encouraged in groupthink
T
67
what are the 4 categories of socialization
primary - occurs during childhood when we initially learn social norms
secondary - process of learning appropriate behavior within smaller sections of larger society (learning how to behave at a sports game vs in church)
anticipatory - process by which a person prepares for future changes in occupations, living situation, etc (pre-med shadowing doctors)
resocialization - process by which one discards old behaviors in favor of new ones
68
what are the three components of attitude
ABC
affective, behavioral, cognitive
69
what is the affective component of attitude
refers to the way a person feels toward something and is the emotional component of attitude
- snakes scare me
- i love my family
70
what is the behavioral component of attitude
the way a person acts with respect to something
- avoiding snakes
- choosing to spend time with family
71
what is the cognitive component of attitude
the way an individual thinks about something (usually the justification for the other two components)
72
what is the functional attitudes theory
states that attitudes serve four functions: knowledge, ego expression, adaptation, and ego defennse
73
what is a stereotype threat
it occurs when a person is anxious about inadvertently confirming a negative stereotype about their social group
74
what is cultural relativism
the view that ethical and social standards reflect the cultural context from which they are derived
75
the larger the correlation coefficient, the more or less significant
the more
76
what is social reproduction
the process by which stratification systems reproduce themselves across generations
77
what is the elaboration likelihood model
a theory of attitude formation and attitude change that separates individuals based on how they process persuasive information
- one extreme is central route processing and the other is peripheral route processing
78
what is central route processing
- high elaboration
- thinking deeply, scrutinizing meaning and purpose, and drawing conclusions based on this analysis
79
what is peripheral route processing
- low elaboration
- focusing on superficial details such as appearance, catchphrases/slogans, and credibility
80
what is reaction formation
the minimization of uncomfortable thoughts or emotions by overemphasizing their opposite
- an insecure partner insists on his love and admiration of the other person despite their jealousy of them
81
what is projection
when someone attributes unacceptable thoughts or behaviors within themselves to another person
82
what is rationalization
creating a seemingly logical explanation for otherwise unacceptable behavior
83
what is emotional displacement
shifting the focus of emotion from a less to more acceptable target
84
what is a positive versus negative reinforcer
a positive reinforcer increases the frequency of the preceding behavior by introducing an appetitive stimulus
a negative reinforcer increases the frequency of the preceding behavior by removing an aversive stimulus
85
what is a positive versus negative punisher
a positive punisher decreases the frequency of the preceding behavior by introducing an aversive stimulus
a negative punisher decreases the frequency of the preceding by removing an appetitive stimulus
86
what is the Hawthorne effect?
the change in participants' behavior when they know their behavior is being observed
87
what is structural functionalism
a large-scale sociological perspective suggesting that all aspects of society work together to maintain a dynamic equilibrium
88
what is symbolic interactionism
a micro-level sociology theory that suggests that people communicate using symbols like hand gestures
89
what is the dramaturgical perspective
theory that individuals behave as actors, behaving in front of others in ways that align with social norms
90
what is the psychoanalytic concept of regression
behaving as if much younger to avoid unacceptable thoughts/behaviors
91
what is the psychoanalytic concept of sublimination
transforming unacceptable thoughts/behaviors to acceptable ones
- taking up boxing in order to vent anger
92
what is an agonist versus antagonist
agonist - mimics or enhances something
antagonist - blocks/inhibits something
93
what are the major targets of dopamine
basal ganglia (motor function), mesolimbic pathway (pleasure, reward), and prefrontal cortex (motivation, emotion regulation)
94
parkinson disease is associated with the loss of __________ neurons in the ____________
dopaminergic ; substantia nigra (structure in the basal ganglia that inhibits excess movement)
95
many antipsychotic drugs are (neurotransmitter) (ant/agonists)
dopamine antagonists
- can have parkinson-like side effects
96
what is a cognitive schema
a knowledge structure that determines one's expectations in different contexts, including social interactions
97
what is the primary function of the parietal lobe
the integration of sensory information
- location of somatosensory cortex (does not process hearing)
98
what is the primary function of the prefrontal cortex
executive functioning and decision making
99
what is the superego according to psychodynamic theory
the structure of personality which houses an individual's conscience, developed via the internalization of parental and societal expectations and values
- demands that one performs to their highest standard
100
what is the ego according to psychodynamic theory
the reality-oriented structure of personality responsible for balancing the conflicting demands of the id (pleasure-seeking impulse) and superego
- when this balance is not met, anxiety is experienced
101
who postulated the psychodynamic theory
Freud
102
what are Weber's characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy
- requires specialization in a limited number of tasks rather than a variety
- employment is based on technical qualifications
- decisions are based on an organizational hierarchy instead of consensus among employees
- performance evaluations are not based on individual criteria but on standardized expectations
103
what is cultural transmission
the transmission of values and practices from one generation to another
104
what is cultural diffusion
the mutual exchange of cultural values and practices among cultural groups in a society
105
what are the two measures of central tendency in statistics
mode and median
106
what is the measure of variance in statistics
standard deviation (indicates consistency)
107
what is perceptual constancy
the tendency to experience a stable perception even as the sensory input itself is changing
108
what is a confounding variable
a variable that varies with the independent variable and affects the dependent variable
109
rods are mainly found in the ________ of the eye while cones are mainly found in the ________ of the eye
periphery ; fovea
110
what is locus of control? external versus internal?
locus of control refers to the types of attributions individuals make to explain their outcomes
- external : individuals believe forces primarily out of their control contribute to their outcomes
- internal : believe it is due to dispositional characteristics
111
social inhibition is
the hindering of someone's performance when in the presence of an audience
112
what is the function of acetylcholinesterase
enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine
113
what is structural mobility
social mobility as a result of macro-social changes, generally impacts a significant part of the population
114
what is medicalization
the recategorization of a condition as a medical problem that requires diagnosis and treatment by medical professionals
- example: alcoholism
115
what is the looking-glass self
an individual basing their sense of self on how they think others perceive them
- postulated by Cooley
116
what are the 3 steps to developing the looking-glass self
1. How do I appear to others? What do people see?
2. How do people evaluate us based on their observations? Do they think I'm smart or funny?
3. We develop feelings about ourselves based on our impressions of their observations
117
what is the mere exposure effect
the preference for familiar stimuli over novel ones
118
what is social comparison
when individuals compare themselves (favorably or unfavorably) to their social contacts
119
what is suburbanization
the out-migration from cities to suburbs which often involves middle-class residents leaving behind low-income residents
120
what is the life course approach
approach that posits that early life events influence an individual's later life outcomes
121
what is strain theory
how people react to social constraints to achieving goals
122
what is disengagement theory
older adults withdraw from personal relationships and society as they age
123
what is differential association theory
focuses on how an individual might learn behaviors, that are considered as deviant in larger society, from their close social environment
124
what is labeling theory
posits that self-identity and behavior may be influenced by the terms and labels used to describe people
- example : how deviant behaviors in the past can have long-term stigmatizing effects
125
what is front stage self
an individual's impression management that is consistent with expectations of a particular social role
126
what is social role conflict
the conflicting demands of two different social roles an individual has
127
what is demographic transition
the association between the level of socioeconomic development and the balance between fertility and mortality rates in a society
128
source monitoring errors occur when
a memory from one source is misattributed to another source
129
what is impression management
the process by which an individual attempts to manage how they are perceived by others
130
what is functional fixedness
a tendency to think of things based on their usual functions
- an obstacle to problem solving
131
what is role conflict versus role strain
role conflict - when needs of separate roles come into conflict
role strain - stress from competing needs/demands within the same role
132
what is role engulfment
when a role becomes a dominant sense of identity
133
what is spontaneous recovery
the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus
134
what is stimulus discrimination versus generalization
discrimination - a stimulus-controlled behavior occurring only in response to the original controlling stimulus without getting triggered by similar stimuli
generalization - behavior occurring in response to similar stimuli
135
continuous reinforcement is associated with a ______ rate of acquisition and _________ extinction
partial reinforcement is associated with a ________ rate of acquisition and __________ extinction
fast ; quicker
slow ; slower
136
what are demand characteristics
cues that may be 'accidentally' or unknowingly given by research design that gives the participants an idea of the hypothesis and may cause them to act differently
137
what is conceptualization versus operationalization
conceptualization - stage in a study where a researcher describes the social dynamics related to a concept
operationalization - refers to how an abstract concept as a variable is observed through different measurements
138
what is instinctive drift
the interference of innate, species-specific behaviors with continued performance of a learned response
139
what is the biomedical approach to mental illness
suggests that physiological cause (like brain chemistry) result in psychological symptoms
- emphasize diagnosis and medical treatment
140
what is the illness experience
a symbolic interactionist perspective that examines how individuals understand and cope with serious illness that affects daily life and self-identity
- illness work (learning about the illness, seeking treatment)
- every day work (daily activities that are impacted)
- biographical work (making sense of the illness, explaining it to family)
141
primary reinforcers are ___________ while secondary reinforcers are ___________
naturally desirable (like candy) ; conditioned to be desirable (like stickers)
142
what is place theory
explains the perception of sound pitch (how high or low a tone is)
- hair cells at the base (start) hear high pitches and cells at the apex (middle) hear low pitches
143
what are the 2 components of self-concept
existential - idea of being an individual separate from others ; knowledge that self-concept is permanent/constant
categorical - putting yourself into categories (age, gender, race) that become more internal as we grow older (career, personal traits)
144
what is Carl Rogers' theory of self concept
has 3 aspects
self-image : our view of ourselves
self-esteem: how much value we place on ourselves
ideal self: what we wish to be
145
what is the social identity theory
our concept of our social identity is composed of 2 parts
personal aspect - personality traits, unique things
social identity - groups you belong to, community
146
what are the 3 steps to forming a social identity
categorization (putting yourself in groups), identification (internalizing the values and behaviors of those groups), and social comparison
147
what is the acronym for people with a strong sense of self-efficacy
Recover
Interests
Strong
Enjoy
148
what is the acronym for people with a weak sense of self-efficacy
Fail
Avoid
Lose
Lack
149
what are the 4 sources of self-efficacy
1. mastery of experience (performing tasks successfully)
2. social modeling (seeing people similar to ourselves succeed)
3. social persuasion (encouragement from others)
4. psychological responses (minimizing stress/anxiety)
150
do people with an internal or external locus of control generally feel happier/less stressed?
internal
151
what's the main difference between Cooley and Mead
Cooley thought that every person we meet throughout our whole lifetime can influence our identity while Mead believed that only certain people during a critical period could
152
what is egocentrism in childhood and who postulated it
Piaget
- the inability of children to take on the perspectives of others, think that everyone thinks like they do, are the focus of their own world
153
what is social network analysis
an epidemiological technique mapping connections between individuals to study the spread of communicable diseases in a population
154
what is content analysis
a qualitative technique used to examine the texts and images used in human communication
155
what is dishabituation
a renewed response to a previously habituated stimulus (taking off a sweater that you got used to and it's scratchy again when you put it back on)
156
what is signal detection theory
the detection of a stimulus depends both on the intensity of the stimulus and the physical/psychological state of the individual (plus past experiences)
- tries to quantify the accuracy of decisions made under conditions of uncertainty
157
which of the 5 senses uses mechanoreceptors
sound
- sound waves pass through the endolymph fluid in the cochlea
- vibrations in this fluid depolarize hair cells in the ear (mechanoreceptors)
158
which of the 5 senses uses photoreceptors
sight
- rods and cones are photoreceptors
159
what is adaptive value
the extent to which a trait or behavior helps an organism survive and reproduce
160
what are the functions of the temporal lobe
hearing, selective listening, language processing, and memory
161
what is the function of the occipital lobe
processing visual information from the eyes including shape, color, and motion
162
what is gentrification
the redevelopment of lower-income urban (city) neighborhoods that occurs in conjunction with an influx of higher-income individuals, resulting in the displacement of lower-income residents
163
what are common symptoms of PTSD
hyperarousal (exaggerated startle response), intrusive symptoms (nightmares), negative thoughts and moods
164
what are common symptoms of GAD, generalized anxiety disorder
excessive worry about a range of topics, muscle tension, difficulty concentrating and sleeping, feeling restless and fatigue
165
what is a primary versus secondary group
primary - group of individuals who are emotionally close, smaller, high degree of interaction (family)
secondary - group of individuals who come together to accomplish something, larger, more impersonal (coworkers)
166
what are ambient stressors
anything in the environment that causes a physiologically or psychologically negative reaction
- noise, pollution, bad smells
167
what is McDonaldization
social process that describes when rationalization (the replacement of traditional practices with predictable, logical rules) is valued as the main tenet in a society
168
what is environmental injustice in terms of disparities
when lower-income areas are subject to more environmental risk factors (increased pollution, toxic waste) that negatively impact health
169
what is social desirability bias
the tendency of research subjects to respond to questions in a way that makes them look better in the eyes of the experimenter
170
what is question-order bias
when the order of questions in a survey affects the results
171
what is sampling bias
when nonrandom subject selection results in a sample that inaccurately represents the population
172
what is social exchange theory
a microsociological perspective of human interactions which proposes that any interaction between people is the result of a calculated effort to maximize personal benefit and minimize personal loss
173
what is the socioeconomic gradient in health
positive correlation between socioeconomic status and health outcomes
174
what are positive symptoms
'pathological excesses' like hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech
175
what are negative symptoms
'pathological deficits' like apathy, inability to experience pleasure, social withdrawal
176
what is neuroleptic medication
conventional, first-generation antipsychotics
- effective in reducing positive symptoms but may worsen negative symptoms
177
what is atypical medication
second-generation antipsychotics
- pose less of a risk for side effects and may lessen negative symptoms
178
what is the most common psychotic disorder
schizophrenia
179
what is the Pearson correlation coefficient r
coefficient that shows the linear relationship between two variables
- r<0 means negative correlation
- r>0 means positive correlation
- ranges from -1 to 1
180
what are adrenergic receptors and what do they respond to
receptors found throughout the body and are involved with the regulation of a variety of functions such as heart rate, vasodilation, and gastrointestinal tone
- respond to epinephrine and norepinephrine
- involved in autonomic nervous system responses
181
what is feature detection
the perceptual discrimination of specific aspects of a given stimulus via feature detectors
- feature detectors are specific neurons that preferentially fire in response to very specific stimuli
- example: neurons in the visual cortex fire to bars of light oriented at specific angles
181
what is spreading activation
when a concept within an individual's semantic network triggers the activation of other related concepts
182
what is serial processing
processing one piece of information at a time
- memorizing a list item by item
183
what is conscientiousness
the quality of wishing to do one's work well and thoroughly
- organization, punctuality, dependability
184
what is self-serving bias
the tendency to attribute one's successes to internal, stable traits and one's failures to external, situational factors
185
a hypothesis requires the _____
definition of an expected relationship between two or more variables
186
what does it mean to perceive something categorically
when a person begins to perceive items belonging to a category as being more similar to each other and less similar to things belonging to other categories
187
what part of the eye is known as the blind spot
optic disc
- portion of the retina where retinal axons project to the optic nerve
188
age, medicalization, and the illness experience are demographic dynamics associated with which social theory
social constructionism
189
Age, social isolation, and networks of social support are demographic dynamics associated with which social theory
symbolic interactionism (bit of a stretch)
190
Generational status, social solidarity, and the welfare state are demographic dynamics associated with which social theory
functionalism
191
Generational status, political power, and resource allocation are demographic dynamics associated with which social theory
conflict theory
192
what is the linguistic relativity hypothesis
language shapes thought/cognition and so speakers of different languages may perceive the world differently
- 'weak' hypothesis
193
what is a source monitoring error
when memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source
194
what is absolute poverty
when individuals cannot meet their basic needs
195
what is marginal poverty
when individuals cannot maintain standard living conditions due to job instability/unstable employment conditions
196
what is relative poverty
social disadvantage by income or wealth as compared to the social advantages linked to income or wealth in a society
197
what is structural poverty
poverty resulting from a lack of economic opportunities for individuals to leave poverty
198
what is hindsight bias
the tendency to overestimate one's ability to predict an outcome after it has already happened
199
what is response bias
the tendency for research participants to respond inaccurately or falsely to self-report questions
200
what is 'REM rebound'
the phenomenon that when someone is REM-deprived the night before, they will spend more time in REM the next night
201
what is a dichotic listening task
presenting different auditory stimuli to each ear
202
Which imaging technique is best suited for localizing brain areas, as described in the studies of neural activity?
A.PET
B.EEG
C.MRI
D.CT
A. PET
PET would show activity
EEG captures brainwave data
MRI and CT are good for showing neuroanatomy/structure
203
serotonin is involved in the regulation of both _____ and _______
mood (specifically, aggression) ; appetite
204
what is sensory interaction
the idea that one sensory modality (e.g., vision) may influence another (e.g., balance).
- example: you can only balance when you keep your eyes open
205
what is perceptual maladaptation
refers to a situation in which our perception of the world around us is inaccurate or distorted due to prolonged exposure to a particular stimulus or when our perceptual systems are not functioning optimally
206
what are the 3 types of organizations
utilitarian - membership is driven by compensation (money or certificate/diploma)
normative - membership is driven by shared goals and/or values
coercive - membership is not freely chosen or maintained (prison)
207
what is reliability vs validity vs generalizability in a study?
reliability - consistency, if it produces similar measures repeatedly
validity (internal) - accuracy
generalizability (external validity) - the extent to which the study results can be applied to outside the laboratory
208
Normative social influence is most likely to arise in a group containing:
A. several members who have expertise regarding the subject
B. all females from the same university
C. an assigned group spokesperson
D. members who are disparate in socioeconomic status
B. all females from the same university
normative social influence describes when an individual conforms to fit in/not be rejected
- happens when individual identifies with group
209
conformity is due to ________ influence while obedience is due to _________
implicit group ; explicit individual
210
what is factitious disorder
a somatic symptom and related disorder (SSRD) where an individual fabricates physical or psychological symptoms without obvious external gain
- wants to gain sympathy from others
211
what is cultural transmission vs cultural diffusion
cultural transmission - passing of information from older to younger generation
cultural diffusion - spreading of culture from one group to another
212
what is actor-observer bias vs fundamental attribution error
actor-observer bias: tendency to attribute one's own actions to external factors and others' actions to internal factors
fundamental attribution error: tendency to blame others' behavior on internal factors (no self component)
213
what is James Marcia's identity development theory
evaluates the psychological processes of individuals based on their level of commitment and degree of exploration, yielding 4 statuses
- identity diffusion (low commitment, low exploration)
- identity foreclosure (high commitment, low exploration)
- identity moratorium (low commitment, high exploration)
- identity achievement (high commitment, high exploration)
214
fixed interval schedules tend to cause an increase in behavior __________ and a decrease in behavior ___________
just before the reward ; just after the reward is received
215
do ratio or interval schedules produce faster immediate response rates
ratio
216
what are primary vs secondary reinforcers
primary - fulfill a biological role and are naturally rewarding (food, praise)
secondary - not inherently rewarding but conditioned to be desirable (money, good grades)
217
are taste-enduring aversions long or short term
long
218
what is universalism vs linguistic determinism
universalism - cognition controls language
linguistic determinism - language controls cognition
219
what is linguistic relativity vs linguistic determinism
linguistic relativity - weak hypothesis, language influences cognition
linguistic determinism - strong hypothesis, language controls cognition
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what is considered the critical period for language development
0 to around 12/13 years
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what does the central executive control
attention and switching between various tasks
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what is the episodic buffer important for
responsible for temporal processing (understanding timeline of events) and integrating long-term memory into working memory
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what is anomie
a state of normlessness that occurs when a society fails to provide individuals with norms and values to guide behavior
- individuals lack guidance and often feel alienated from society
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what theorists are most associated with structural functionalism
durkheim and parsons
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what theorists are most associated with conflict theory
marx and weber
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what theorists are most associated with symbolic interactionism
cooley and mead
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what is the Malthusian theory of population growth
the human population increases exponentially while resources increase at a slower rate (linear)
- preventative checks decrease birth rate (and are usually voluntary like birth control)
- positive checks increase the death rate (large scale positive checks are malthusian catastrophes)
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what brain region is responsible for the physiological aspects of emotion
hypothalamus
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what are vicarious emotions
when an observer intuits the feelings that another may be experiencing
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sick role theory connects to what social model
structural functionalism
- illness is an allowed deviance that causes imbalance
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the illness experience connects to what social model
symbolic interactionism
- how illness becomes part of someone's identity and daily routine
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what is strain theory
predicts that individuals experience tension (strain) when there is a disconnect between goals and the available means for achieving those goals
- causes individuals to seek deviant ways of achieving that goal
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what is differential association theory
suggests that deviance is learned through interaction with others engaging in deviance
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what is labeling theory
says that when individuals are labeled deviant, they will act that way
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functional fixedness vs mental set
functional fixedness - inability to see use for an object beyond its intentioned use
mental set - inability to see a problem from a new perspective / use of old methods to solve new problems
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what is social epidemiology
a subfield focusing on the social factors that influence the health of an individual or population
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what is relative deprivation
the discontent people feel when they believe they are entitled to something yet are being deprived of it
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what are push and pull factors
factors that help explain human migration patterns
- push factors describe why people move away from their native country
- pull factors describe why people move to a country
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what is the general adaptation syndrome
proposed by Hans Selye, is a model of describing how the body reacts to stress (three stages)
- alarm
- resistance
- exhaustion
- the stress response always follows a similar course regardless of the nature of the stressor
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what are the 3 major psychotherapy approaches
1. Cognitive behavioral therapy - replacing negative habits with positive ones
2. Psychoanalytic therapy - 'talk therapy', discover unconscious causes
3. Humanistic person-centered therapy - empowers individuals, move towards self-actualization
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internal validity is most associated with ________ while external validity is most associated with ___________
causality ; generalizability
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what is a content analysis
the systematic coding and interpretation of human communication
example: the analysis and coding of social media text
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what are the 4 major sociological approaches to aging
Activity ; Continuity; Disengagement ; Life course
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how would you describe the stages of the demographic transition model in 1 word each
1. pre-industrial
2. industrializing
3. urbanizing
4. developed
5. hypothetical/future
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what is the optimum population model
theory that regards the ideal population size, which is the number of people yielding the highest per capita income given the country's level of wealth, knowledge, and technical resources
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what is the total fertility rate
the average number of children born per woman during her lifetime
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what is the crude birth rate (CBR) vs general fertility rate (GFR)
crude birth rate - number of live births per year per every 1000 members of a population (regardless of sex or age)
general fertility rate - number of live births per year per 1000 women of child-bearing age
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what are the 3 circadian biomarkers
cortisol, melatonin, core body temp
cortisol - peaks immediately after waking and is lowest when falling asleep
melatonin - low when awake but peaks during sleeping hours
body temp - 38˚C when awake and 36 when sleeping
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what are parasomnias vs dyssomnias
parasomnias - disorders involving abnormal function of the nervous system during sleep ; happen mainly during childhood (sleep walking, night terrors)
dyssomnias - disorders involving difficulty falling or staying asleep ; mainly during adulthood (insomnia, sleep apnea, narcolepsy)
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what is the suprachiasmatic nucleus and where is it
specialized nucleus that regulates the circadian pacemaker that controls circadian rhythms
- in the hypothalamus
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what is the monoamine hypothesis
a biomedical model of depression
- the idea that the depletion of monoamine neurotransmitters (serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine) in the nervous system directly causes depression
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what is the teacher expectancy effect
describes what occurs when a teacher's preconceived ideas about a student result in student performance that ultimately meets the teacher's expectations
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what is the reminiscence bump
older adults tend to recall events from their youth more easily than events that happened later
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what is the pattern of normal memory decay
the initial rate of decay is highest after the material is first learned and then plateaus over time
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what is social identity
how one's self-concept is shaped by group membership
- define individuals in relation to others and allow for social groupings
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what is group identification
the extent to which an individual perceives himself as a member of a larger collective
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how do PET scans work
scanner detects radioactive tracer attached to glucose analog
- measures changes in glucose metabolism in brain over time
- activity
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what are the 3 types of kinship
consanguineal - based on genetic relationship
affinal - based on marriage
fictive - social ties that are not consanguineal or affinal (like adopted children)
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what are the 3 degrees of kinship
primary - first-degree family member (mother)
secondary - primary kin of first-degree family members (mother's brother)
tertiary - secondary kin of first-degree family members (mother's uncle)
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what is spatial inequality
the uneven distribution of wealth and resources across a geographic area (like low-income public housing projects)
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what is the James Lange theory of emotion
suggest that the physiological response elicited by a stimulus produces emotion
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what is the Schacter Singer theory of emotion
two-factor theory ; cognitive interpretation of the physiological response produces emotion
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what is the Cannon Bard theory of emotion
physiological and emotional responses occur simultaneously and independently
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what are the 6 universal emotions
anger, sadness, fear, disgust, happiness, surprise
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what is the Lazarus theory of emotion
cognitive appraisal of the stimulus leads to physiological and emotional response
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what brain structures does the limbic system include
cingulate gyrus, thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus
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what are the 3 components of emotion
cognitive - includes all the mental processes accompanying emotion and appraisal of the situation
behavioral - immediate outward reaction to emotion ; involuntary and automatic
physiological - bodily processes that accompany emotion
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what is the adaptive role emotions play
allow humans to emotionally connect with others
- fosters group unity and conformity
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what is the base rate fallacy
the error people make when they ignore the base rates (i.e., prior probabilities) when evaluating the probabilities (or frequencies) of events
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what is the hindsight bias
The hindsight bias (i.e., the “I knew it all along” effect) refers to the tendency for a person to overestimate how well he or she could have successfully predicted a known outcome (i.e., a “forecast,” given before the outcome was known).
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what is the "glass escalator" effect
sociological concept that men who pursue occupations that have high proportions of women (such as teaching or nursing) will quickly ascend the career ladder with promotions
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what are the Big Five personality traits
OCEAN
optimism, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, neuroticism
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what is overextension
the term for applying a term for one class of objects to other objects that bear only a superficial resemblance (for example "doggie" for cows)
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what is the naming explosion
phenomenon that toddlers learn a huge amount of new words between the ages of 1 and 2
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what is bootstrapping
happens during early grammar development in kids
- they learn syntax and grammar by building upon (bootstrapping) things they've already learned
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what is the tricolor vs opponent process theory
the tricolor theory states that the cones are red, blue and green and the spectrum of color perception is made from a mixture of the three receptors. Opponent process theory states that the receptors are green-red, blue-yellow, black-white and the mixture of those creates all the colors. The opponent process theory also accounts for after images
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what is the somatic nervous system
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls sensory and motor functions of the effectors that allow organisms to deal with their external environment
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Which finding would support the validity of the DMQ (questionnaire) measure?
A.A positive correlation between the DMQ scores and the CG scores
B.A negative correlation between the DMQ scores and the CG scores
C.A positive correlation between participants' scores on two different administrations of the DMQ
D.A negative correlation between participants' scores on two different administrations of the DMQ
A.
Both the DMQ and the CG were designed to assess risky behavior. Lower scores indicated greater risk aversion on both measures. Therefore, a positive correlation between the DMQ scores and the CG scores can be interpreted as supporting their validity (i.e., that both measure what they are intended to measure).
It's not C because that indicates reliability
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what is selective vs divided attention
selective attention - flipping between multiple tasks (think of a flashlight being able to shine only on one thing at a time)
divided attention - actively focusing on two things at once (cooking dinner while listening to friend talk)
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what are exogenous vs endogenous attention cues
exogenous - external; we don't have to think about paying attention to it, it happens automatically (loud noises, bright colors)
endogenous - more internalized and higher order; require internal knowledge to understand the cue (arrows that point)
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what is a classic example of selective attention
cocktail party effect
- hearing one voice out of several
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hearing someone say your name and you directing your attention to it is an example of an exogenous or endogenous cue?
endogenous - the meaning of your name is what made you pay attention
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what two effects make up the serial position effect
primacy and recency
- you remember first and last things
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which types of memory and intelligence are unaffected by aging
semantic memory ; crystallized intelligence
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