Psych/Soc Flashcards
Sensation
aligns with transduction, taking the physical, electromagnetic, auditory, and other info from our internal and external environment and converting this information into electrical signals in the nervous system
Perception
refers to processing info within the central nervous system in order to make sense of the information’s significance
Mechanoreceptors
respond to pressure or movement
Nociceptors
respond to painful or noxious stimuli (somatosensation)
Absolute threshold
the minimum of stimulus energy that is needed to activate a sensory system (how bright, loud, or intense a stimulus must be before it is sensed)
Threshold of conscious perception
the level of intensity that a stimulus must pass in order to be consciously perceived by the brain
Subliminal perception
information that is received by the central nervous system but that does not cross the threshold of conscious perception
Difference threshold (just noticeable difference)
the minimum change in magnitude required for an observer to perceive that two different stimuli are, in fact, different
Retina
innermost layer of the eye, contains the actual photoreceptors that transduce light into electrical information the brain can process
Weber’s law
the idea that difference thresholds are proportional and must be computed as percentages
cornea
domelike window in front of the eye, gathers and focuses the incoming light
Cones
used for color vision and to sense fine details
Rod
permit vision in reduced light, only allow sensation of light and dark
Parallel processing
the brain’s ability to analyze information regarding color, form, motion, and depth simultaneously using independent pathways in the brain
Depth perception
our ability to discriminate the 3-D shape of our environment and judge the distance of objects within it, is largely based in discrepancies between the inputs the brain receives from our two eyes
vestibular sense
our ability to both detect rotational and linear acceleration and to use this info to inform our sense of balance and spatial orientation
Perilymph
simultaneously transmits vibrations from the outside world and cushions the inner ear structures
auditory (vestibulocochlear) nerve
carries electrical signals to the central nervous system
Five basic tastes
sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami (savory)
Somatosensation
has 4 modalities: pressure, vibration, pain, temperature
Kinesthetic sense (proprioception)
the ability to tell where one’s body is in space
Bottom-up (data driven) processing
object recognition by parallel processing and feature detection (the brain takes the individual sensory stimuli and combines them together to create a cohesive image before determining what the object is
Top-down (conceptually driven) processing
driven by memories and expectations that allow the brain to recognize the whole object and then recognize the components based on these expectations
Perceptual organization
the ability to create a complete picture or idea by combining top-down and bottom-up processing with all of the other sensory clues gathered from an object
Gestalt principles
a set of general rules that account for the fact that the brain tends to view incomplete stimuli in organized, pattern ways
Law of proximity
elements close to one another tend to be perceived as a unit
Law of similarity
objects that are similar tend to be grouped together
Law of good continuation
elements that appear to follow in the same pathway tend to be grouped together
Law of closure
when a space is enclosed by a contour, the space tends to be perceived as a complete figure
Law of pragnanz
governs the Gesalt principles, perceptual organization will always be as regular, simple, and symmetric as possible
Classical conditioning
a type of associative learning that takes advantage of biological, instinctual responses to create association between two unrelated stimuli, Ivan Pavlov’s experiment on dogs salivating
Operant conditioning
examines the ways in which consequences of voluntary behaviors change the frequency of those behaviors (reinforcement and punishment), associated w/ B.F. Skinner
Reinforcement
positive= increase the frequency of a behavior by adding a positive consequence or incentive following the desired behavior, ex: money keeps employees working
negative= increase the frequency of a behavior also, but they do so by removing something unpleasant, ex: taking aspirin reduces a headache
Escape learning
the animal experiences the unpleasant stimulus and in response displays the desired behavior in order to trigger the removal of the stimulus
Avoidance learning
the animal displays the desired behavior in anticipation of the unpleasant stimulus, thereby avoiding the unpleasant stimulus
Punishment
used to reduce the occurrence of a behavior
positive= adds an unpleasant consequence in response to a behavior to reduce that behavior (also called aversive conditioning)
negative= removing a stimulus in order to cause reduction of a behavior
Latent learning
learning that occurs without a reward but that is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced
Sensory memory
preserves info in its original sensory form (auditory, visual, etc.) with high accuracy and lasts only a very short time, generally less than one second
-consists of iconic memory (fast-decaying memory of visual stimuli) and echoic memory (fast-decaying memory of auditory stimuli)
Long-term memory
-implicit memory consists of our skills, habits, and conditioned responses, none of which need to be consciously recalled, included procedural memory (relates to our unconscious memory of the skills required to complete procedural tasks) and priming (involves the presentation of one stimulus affecting perception of a second)
-explicit memory consists of those memories that require conscious recall
Explicit memory (under long-term memory)
-Episodic memory refers to our recollection of life experiences
-Semantic memory refers to ideas, concepts, or facts that we know, but are not tied to specific life experiences
-Autobiographical memory is explicit memories about our lives and ourselves, and includes all of our episodic memories of our own life experiences, but also includes semantic memories that relate to our personal traits and characteristics
retrograde amnesia
the loss of previously formed memories
anterograde amnesia
the inability to form new memories
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development
-Sensorimotor stage: starts at birth and lasts until about 2 years of age, a child learns to manipulate the environment in order to meet physical needs and learns to coordinate sensory input w/ motor actions, the milestone that ends this stage is object permanence
-Preoperational stage: lasts from ages 2 - 7, characterized by symbolic thinking (ability to pretend, play make-believe, and have an imagination) and egocentrism, inability to grasp the concept of conservation (physical amount remains the same even if there is a change in shape or appearance)
-Concrete operational stage: lasts from ages 7 - 11, children understand conservation and consider the perspective of others (loss of egocentrism), can engage in logical thought as long as they are working w/ concrete objects or info that is directly available
-Formal operational stage: starts at age 11, the ability to think logically about abstract ideas and problem solve, hypothetical reasoning
Beta waves
have a high frequency and occur when the person is alert or attending to a mental task that requires concentration, occur when neurons are randomly firing
Alpha waves
occur when we are awake but relaxing with our eyes closed, and are somewhat slower and more synchronized than beta waves
Theta waves
shown in stages
-stage 1 (NREM1): as soon as you doze off, show w/ theta waves, EEG is characterized by irregular waveforms w/ slower frequencies
-stage 2 (NREM2): as you fall more deeply asleep, EEG shows theta waves along w/ sleep spindles which are bursts of high-frequency waves and K complexes which are singular high-amplitude waves
Delta waves
-stage 3 (NREM 3 or slow-wave sleep (SWS), EEG activity grows progressively slower until only a few waves per second are seen, these are low frequency, high voltage delta waves, during this stage rousing someone from sleep becomes difficult
Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep
interspersed between cycles of NREM stages, arousal levels reach that of wakefulness but the muscles are paralyzed , one’s HR, breathing patterns, and EEG mimics wakefulness but the individual is still asleep, dreaming more likely to occur in this stage
Depressants
reduce nervous system activity, resulting in a sense of relaxation and reduced anxiety, ex: alcohol and sedatives
-alcohol:
-sedatives: barbiturates (used as anxiety reducing and sleep medications– amobarbital, phenobarbital) and benzodiazepines (less prone to overdose– alprazolam, lorazepam, diazepam. and clonazepam)
Stimulants
cause an increase in the arousal in the nervous system, increases the frequency of action potentials
-Amphetamines: increase arousal by increasing the release of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, cause increase in HR and BP
-Cocaine: also acts on dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin but decreases reuptake of neurotransmitters instead, has vasoconstrictive properties —crack is a form of cocaine the can be smoked
-Ecstacy (MDMA): acts as a hallucinogen combined w/ an amphetamines, causes increase in HR, hyperthermia, increased BP, feelings of euphoria, increased alertness, sense of well-being and connectedness
Opiates and opioids
types of narcotics, also known as painkillers, from the poppy plant opium
-opiates: naturally occurring forms which include morphine and codeine
-opioids: semisynthetic derivatives which include oxycodone, hydrocodone, and heroin
Hallucinogens
drugs which typically cause introspection, distortions of reality and fantasy, and enhancement of sensory experiences
-increased HR and BP, dilation of pupils, sweating, and increased body temperature
-ex: lysergic acid diethyl amide (LSD), peyote, mescaline, ketamine, and psilocybin-containing mushrooms
Semantics
the association of meaning with a word
Pragmatics
the dependence of language on context and preexisting knowledge
Whorfian Hypothesis or linguistic relativity hypothesis
suggests that our perception of reality is determined by the content of language (language affects the way we think)
Aphasia
a deficit of language production or comprehension
Instinct theory of motivation
certain behaviors are based on evolutionarily programmed instincts
-William McDougall proposed that humans were led to all thoughts and behaviors by 18 distinctive instincts, including flight and acquisition
Arousal theory of motivation
states that people perform actions in order to maintain an optimal level of arousal: seeking to increase arousal when it falls below their optimal level, and to decrease arousal when it rises above their optimum level
Drive reduction theory of motivation
explains that motivation is based on the goal of eliminating uncomfortable states
Self-actualization
-highest level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs pyramid
-the need to realize one’s fullest potential
Self-determination theory (SDT) of motivation
-a need based motivational theory
-emphasizes the role of three universal needs: autonomy (the need to be in control of one’s actions and ideas), competency (the need to complete and excel at difficult tasks), and relatedness (the need to feel accepted and wanted in relationships)
Incentive theory of motivation
explains that behavior is motivated not by need or arousal, but by the desire to pursue rewards and to avoid punishments
Expectancy-value theory of motivation
states that the amount of motivation needed to reach a goal is the result of both the individual’s expectation of success in reaching the goal and the degree to which the individual values succeeding at the goal
Opponent-process theory of motivation
explains that when a drug is taken repeatedly, the body will attempt to counteract the effects of the drug by changing its physiology
The three elements of emotion
the physiological response (changes in HR, BR, skin temp, and BP), the behavioral response (facial expressions and body language), and the cognitive response (the subjective interpretation of the feeling being experience)
Seven universal emotions
happiness, sadness, contempt, surprise, fear, disgust, anger
James-Lange theory of emotion
a stimulus results first in physiological arousal, which leads to a secondary response in which the emotion is labeled
-predicts that individuals who cannot mount a sympathetic response, like patients with spinal cord injuries, should show decreased levels of emotion
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
states that the conscious experience of emotion and physiological arousal occur simultaneously, and then the behavioral component of emotion (action) follows
Schachter-Singer theory of emotion
also termed the cognitive arousal theory or the two factor theory, states that two factors (physiological arousal and a cognitive label) are needed to experience emotion
-states that physiological arousal alone is insufficient to elicit an emotional response
-unique to this theory: cognitive appraisal: to feel an emotion, one must consciously analyze the environment in relation to nervous system arousal
Cognitive appraisal
the subjective evaluation of a situation that induces stress
-involves primary appraisal (the initial evaluation of the environment and the associated threat) and a secondary appraisal (directed at evaluating whether the organism can cope with the stress)
Freud: Psychosexual Development
believed human psychology and human sexuality were inextricably linked
-oral: libidinal energy centered on the mouth, fixation can lead to excessive dependency
-anal: toilet training occurs during this time; fixation can lead to excessive orderliness or messiness
-phallic: oedipal or electra conflict is resolved during this stage
-latency: libido is largely sublimated during this stage
-genital: begins at puberty; in theory, if previous stages have been successfully resolved, the person will enter into heterosexual relationships
Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development
theorizes that personality development is driven by the successful resolution of a series of social and emotional conflicts
-trust vs. mistrust: 0 to 1 year; can I trust the world?
-autonomy vs. shame and doubt: 1 to 3 years; is it okay to be me?
-initiative vs. guilt: 3 to 6 years; is it okay for me to do, move, and act?
-industry vs. inferiority: 6 to 12 years; can I make it in the world of people and things?
-identity vs. role confusion: 12 to 20 years; who am I? What can I be?
-intimacy vs. isolation: 20 to 40 years; Can I love?
-generativity vs. stagnation: 40 to 65 years; Can I make my life count?
-integrity vs. despair: 65 years to death; Is it okay to have been me?
Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning
as our cognitive abilities grow, we are able to think about the world in more complex and nuanced ways, and this directly affect the ways in which we resolve moral dilemmas and perceive the notion of right and wrong
-Preconventional morality: preadolescence, 1. Obedience, 2. self-interest
-Conventional morality: adolescence to adulthood, 3. conformity, 4. law and order
-Postconventional morality: adulthood (if at all), 5. social contract, 6. universal human ethics
Vygotsky: cultural and biosocial development
the engine driving cognitive development was the child’s internalization of various aspects of culture: rules, symbols, language, and so on
-zone of proximal development: those skills and abilities that have not yet fully developed but are in the process of development
Id, ego, superego
id: consists of the basic, primal, inborn urges to survive and reproduce
ego: postpone the pleasure principle until satisfaction can actually be obtained, ego suspends the workings of the id to meet the demands of objective reality, the organizer of the mind; it receives its power from and can never be fully independent of the id
superego: the personality’s perfectionist, judging our actions and responding w/ pride at our accomplishments and guilt at our failures
Social facilitation
the tendency of people to perform better on simple tasks when in the presence of others
Deindividuation
the loss of one’s self-awareness in a group setting and the associated adoption of a more group oriented identity
Bystander effect
occurs in social groups wherein individuals do not intervene to assist those who are in perceived need when other people are present
Social loafing
the tendency of individuals to reduce effort when in a group setting
Cognitive dissonance
the simultaneous presence of two opposing thoughts or opinions
Group polarization
describes the tendency for groups to collaboratively make decisions that are more extreme than the individual ideas and inclinations of the members within the group
Groupthink
a social phenomenon in which desire for harmony or conformity results in a group of people coming to an incorrect or poor decision
Ethnic enclaves
locations with a high concentration of one specific ethnicity
taboo
socially unacceptable, disgusting, or reprehensible
lowball technique
the requestor will get an initial commitment from an individual, and then raise the cost of the commitment
that’s-not-all technique
an individual is made an offer, but before making a decision, is told the deal is even better than expected
Symbol interactionism
an approach to sociology pioneered by George Herbert Mead that attempts to understand human action and interaction by studying the symbols we use to communicate
-makes 3 main assumptions
1) humans act toward symbols based on the meanings that these symbols carry
2) the meanings symbols carry come from social interaction
3) humans interpret the meaning of symbols, and this interpretation influences action
Rational choice (exchange) theory
focuses on individual decision making
-humans will make rational choices to further their own self-interests
-claims that people weigh the costs and benefits when making choices, ranking their options based on maximizing perceived benefit
Conflict theory
attempts to understand society by examining the inevitable conflicts between groups in society
-has its origins in the writings of Karl Marx
-examines any conflict between groups with more power and those with less
Structural functionalism
-founded by Emile Durkheim who was interested in how large societies survive over long time periods and was therefore concerned with social cohesion and stability
-compared society to an organism and proposed that each group in society has a role to play in the overall health and operation of society
-manifest function (an intended consequence of the actions of a group with in society)
-latent function (when an organization or institution has unintended but beneficial consequences
Feminist theory
-critiques the institutional power structures that disadvantage women in society
–glass ceiling (processes that limit the progress of women to the highest job positions because of invisible social barriers to promotion)
–glass escalator (even in cases where men do not seek to climb the job ladder, invisible social forces sometimes push men up to higher positions
Ascribed status
derives from clearly identifiable characteristics, such as age, gender, and skin color
Achieved status
acquired via direct, individual efforts
Vertical mobility
movement from one social class to another
Horizontal mobility
a change in occupation or lifestyle by an individual that keeps that individual within the same social class
Incidence
the number of new cases of an illness per population at risk in a given amount of time
Prevalence
a measure of the number of cases of an illness overall -whether new or chronic- per population in a given amount of time
Morbidity
the burden or degree of illness associated with a given disease
Mortality
deaths caused by a given disease
Second sickness
an exacerbation of health outcomes caused by social injustice
