Psych/Soc Flashcards
Convergence and the muscles of the eye
Gives humans an idea of depth based on how much the eyeballs are turned. Object far away –> muscles of eye relax. Object close –> muscles of eye contract
Binocular Cues
Gives humans a sense of depth. Due to humans’ two eyeballs. Includes retinal disparity
Monocular Cues
Visual cues for which humans do not need two eyes. Gives humans senses of form and motion of an object
Interposition
Perception that one object is in front of another. An object that is in the front is closer
Relative height (vision)
Things higher are perceived to be farther away than those that are lower
Shading and Contour
Using light and shadows to perceive form
Motion parallax
“Relative motion” - Things farther away move slower, closer moves faster
Monocular Cue of Constancy
When human’s perception of an object does not change even though the image cast on the retina does. Ex: a door opening changes shape but the mind still thinks its a door
Color constancy
Perception does not change even when lighting changes causing the color falling on the retina to change
Sensory adaptation
Humans’ senses changing their sensitivity to certain stimuli
Proprioception
The sense of the position of the body in space, i.e. “sense of balance or where you are in space”
Up/Down regulation of sight
Downregulation: light adaptation, pupils constrict, rods and cones become desensitized to light. Upregulation: dark adaptation, pupils dilate, rods and cones make light-sensitive molecules
Weber’s Law
Shows that the ratio between the weight of an object and the just noticeable difference (JND) in weight of that object is constant.
JND / (initial intensity) = k (constant)
Absolute Threshold of Sensation
Minimum intensity of a stimulus needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time
Subliminal Stimuli
Stimuli below the absolute threshold of sensation
Types of Somatosensation
Thermoception (temp.), mechanoception (pressure), nociception (pain), and proprioception (position)
Non-adapting neuron
Fires at constant rate
Slow-adapting neuron
Fires in the beginning of stimulus but slows down after a while
Fast-adapting neuron
Fires as soon as stimulus starts, then stops firing even while stimulus is still active. It starts firing again when stim ceases
Vestibular Sensation
Sense of balance and spatial orientation. Depends on inner ear and limbs, with emphasis on inner ear
Semicircular canals of inner ear
Posterior, lateral, and interior (each perpendicular to each other). Filled with endolymph fluid
Endolymph
Fluid in the inner ear canals that moves when the head rotates. Speed of fluid movement allows perception of strength of head rotation.
Otolithic organs
Utricle and Saccule - parts of the vestibular system in inner ear. Help detect linear acceleration and head positioning. CaCO3 crystals within the otolithic organs tug on hair cells, triggering action potentials.
Action of vestibular system in dizziness
Endolymph continues spinning even after person has stopped
Signal Detection Theory
Examines how we make decisions under conditions of uncertainty - discerning between important stimuli and unimportant “noise”
Bottom-Up Processing
Starts with stimulus and perception is built off data presented at that moment. “Inductive reasoning.” Always correct
Top-Down Processing
Brain constructs perception based on past experiences and expectations. Deductive reasoning. Not always correct.
Gestalt Principles / Gestalt’s Laws of Grouping
Attempts to explain how we perceive visual stimuli the way we do: our minds look at “whole” images/situations rather than just singular pieces. Our brain fills in gaps to see the entire image for what it really is
Gestalt Principle: Similarity
The brain groups similar items together
Gestalt Principle: Pragnanz
The brain reduces shapes into the simplest form possible in perception
Gestalt Principle: Proximity
Closely spaced objects are grouped together rather than things farther apart
Gestalt Principle: Continuity
Lines are seen as following the smoothest path
Gestalt Principle: Closure
Objects grouped together are seen as a whole, and mind fills in missing information.
Gestalt Principle: Symmetry
The mind perceives objects as being symmetrical and forming around a center point
Gestalt Principle: Law of Common Fate
If there is an array of dots in which half the dots are moving up and the other half are moving down, we perceive the upward and downward moving dots as two distinct units
Gestalt Principle: Law of Past Experiences
Under certain circumstances, visual stimuli are categorized according to past experiences. Ex. Interpretting letters to form words rather than applying other Gestalt Principles to see them as other shapes
Gestalt Principle: Contextual Effects
Context of stimuli contributes to the perception and organization of each stimulus
Conjuctiva
Thin layer of cells that lines inside of eyelids from the eye
Cornea
First part of the eye that light hits, starts to bend the light. Clear, thick layer of fibrous tissue. Anterior 1/6th.
Anterior chamber (of eye)
Space filled with aqueous humor that provides pressure to maintain shape of eyeball. Allows nutrients and minerals to supply cells of cornea and iris.
Pupil
Opening of the middle of the iris. Controls the amount of light entering the eye. Size changes based on the iris relaxing/constricting (gets bigger/smaller, respectively).
Iris
The muscle that constricts/relaxes to change size of the pupil. Also gives the eye color.
Lens
Bends light to focus it specifically on the fovea of the retina. Changes shape using the suspensory ligaments to adjust how much the light is bent.
Suspensory Ligaments
Attaches lens to ciliary muscles to allow for shape-change of the lens.
Ciliary Body
Ciliary muscles and suspensory ligaments. The complex that secretes the aqueous humor.
Posterior chamber (of eye)
Space between the back of the iris to the back of the lens; also filled with aqueous humor
Vitreous Humor
Fills the Vitreous Chamber. Jelly-like substance to provide pressure to eyeball and gives nutrients to inside of eyeball
Retina
Inside back area of eyeball filled with photoreceptors. Converts light from physical waveform to an electrochemical impulse for brain to interpret.
Macula
Select area of the retina that is rich in cones (there are also some rods present)
Fovea
Special part of the macula where there are only cones (NO rods). No bundles of axons are present, so light can hit cones directly. Area of maximal light delivery to cones.
Cones
Detect color and discern high level of detail in what is being observed. Cone-shaped. 3 types: red, gree, blue
Rods
Detect light. Rod-shaped
Chloroid
A network of blood vessels that helps nourish retina. Pigmented black in humans, so all light is absorbed.
Animals with different colord Chloroid than humans.
Gives them better night vision than humans (whose chloroid is black)
Sclera
The whites of the eye. Thick, fibrous tissue. Attachment point for muscles, provides protection and structure to eyeball. Lined with conjuctiva.
Transmission (neurons)
Electrical activation of one neuron by another
Perception
Conscious sensory experience of neural processing
Processing (in terms of visual sensory information)
Refers to neural transformation of multiple neural signals into a perception
Transduction (concerning visual sensory info)
Energy transformation from light to electrical energy by rods and cones (photoreceptors)
What is light?
An electromagnetic wave. In the middle of the Electromagnetic Spectrum
Electromagnetic (EM) Spectrum
Contains every wavelength. Longest to shortest: (AM/FM, microwave (food), infrared, visible light [ROYGBIV], UV, XRay, gamma)
Phototransduction Cascade (PTC)
Makes brain realize presence of light passing through eyeball. See notes for detailed description. Simply: Light hits rod (turns it off) –> turns ON bipolar cell –> turns ON ganglion cell –> optic nerve –> BRAIN
Rhodopsin and Photopsin
Proteins on optic disks of rods and cones, respectively.
Optic Disks
Large, membrane-bound structures inside rods and cones. Proteins in the membranes fire action potentials to the brain
Photoreceptor
Specialized nerve cells that can take light and convert it to a neural impulse. Rods and cones. Eye has 20x more rods than cones
Recovery time of rods vs cones
Rods = slow; Cones = fast. It takes a while to adjust to the dark because rods need to be reactivated. Cones adapt quickly because they fire more frequently
Blind Spot on Retina
Where optic nerve attaches to retina. No rods or cones present
Visual Field Processing
How the brain makes sense of what is seen.
Optic Chiasm
Point of convergence of the optic nerves from each eye. Axons from nasal sides of each eye cross sides after chiasm. Axons from temporal sides do NOT cross.
Feature Detection
The process of identifying the color, form, and motion of an object
Trichromatic Theory of Color Vision
Three types of cones: Red (60&), green (30%), and blue (10%)
Parvocellular pathway
Identifies spatial resolution and color to determine boundaries and shape of an object in high detail. Cannot detect motion - only stationary. Cones are responsible for it
Magnocellular pathway
Has high temporal resolution (encodes motion), but low spatial resolution (no color). Rods are responsible
Parallel processing
Detect/focus all visual processing information (color, form, motion) at the same time
Audition and its requirements
Sense of sound. To hear sound, there must be a pressurized sound wave and a hair cell (a receptor, located in cochlea)
Effect of Wavelength on Cochlear Penetration
Longer wavelength (lower frequency) penetrates deeper into cochlea and travels farther
Why can we hear multiple sounds at once and break them up?
Different sounds have different frequencies, so the depth of penetration along the cochlea is different.
Path of Sounds Waves
- Pinna
- Auditory canal (AKA external auditory meatus)
- Tympanic membrane (eardrum)
- Vibration of ossicles (malleus, incus, then stapes)
- Vibration of oval window (elliptical window)
- Fluid movement in/around cochlea
- Fluid gets pushed out of round window
- Hair cells in cochlea are moved by the fluid and send electrical impulses to brain via auditory nerve
- Impulses continue until fluid around the cochlea stops moving
Ossicles
Malleus, incus, stapes (think MAS). The 3 smallest bones in the body. Vibrate due to sound conduction by the eardrum. Stapes vibrates the oval window
Pinna
Outer part of ear
Organ of Corti
Divides cochlea in 2. Includes basilar membrane and tectorial membrane. Prevents backflow of fluid through oval window from cochlea. Redirects fluid out through round window.
Place Theory
Perception of sound depends on where each component frequency produces vibrations along the basilar membrane. Different frequencies cause vibrations in different locations
External/Outer Ear
Pinna and eardrum
Middle Ear
Malleus to incus to stapes (ossicles)
Inner Ear
Cochlea and semicircular canals
Upper membrane of Organ of Corti and process of signaling AP
Bundle of hair cells made of little filaments (kinocilium). Each kinocilium is connected by a tip link attached to a K+ channel. Endolymph pushing on the tip link causes stretching, allowing K+ to flow inside from the endolymph. Ca2+ is activated when K+ gets inside –> AP –> activates spiral ganglion cell –> auditory nerve stimulation
Main function of Cochlea
Differentiation between sounds
Auditory Processing
How the brain interprets different reactions of the cochlea to stimuli.
Basilar Tuning
Hair cells at the beginning (base) of the cochlea are activated by high frequencies. Hair cells in the middle of the cochlea (apex) are activated by lower frequency sounds (think longer wavelength = longer travel)
Brain location of Primary Auditory Cortex
Temporal Lobe
Tonotopical Mapping
Projection of APs due to different frequency onto different parts of the primary auditory cortex
Cochlear Implants
Restores some degree of hearing to individuals with sensorineural hearing loss. Sound -> microphone/speech processor -> transmitter -> receiver -> stimulator -> cochlea (converts electrical impulse into neural impulse to go to brain)
Sensory Adaptation
Change over time of receptor’s response to a constant stimulus. Downregulation of a sensory receptor in the body
Importance of Down-Regulation of Sensory Receptor
Prevents cell from getting overexcited by pain signal. Too much pain signal (capsaicin) in a pain receptor can cause a cell to die
Amplification (regarding sensation)
Upregulation of sensory receptor’s response. Number of action potentials traveling towards the brain increases exponentially with each neuron.
Somatosensory Homunculus
“Sensory strip” in the sensory cortex in the parietal lobe. Signals from different parts of the body go to different parts of the strip.
Somatosensory Homunculus
Map of your body in the brain.
Proprioception
Sense of balance/position. Cognitive (ie not always thinking about it)
Spindle (proprioception)
Tiny receptor/sensor in the muscles that sends signals to the spinal cord and brain. Attached to the muscles so the brain knows how contracted or relaxed they are
Kinaesthesia
Sense of the movement in the body in space. Similar to proprioception but different in that this is behavioral rather than cognitive
Nociception
Ability to sense pain. SLOW
Thermoception
Ability to sense temperature. SLOW
Thermoception receptor (also senses pain) and mechanism
TrypV1 receptor. Heat induces a conformational change in the receptor protein which “pokes the cell”. When cells are poked, thousands are broken up and release different molecules that bind to TrypV1 receptors, triggering another conformational change.
3 types of nerve fibres and their relative sizes and speeds
A-beta (fastest), A-delta (middle speed), C (slowest)
A-beta fibres
Thick and myelinated nerve fibres. Large radius means low resistance and high conductance
A-delta fibres
Smaller diameter than A-beta. Less myelin = lower conductance
C fibres
Unmyelinated. Smaller diameter means higher resistance and lowest conductance. Responsible for lingering sense of pain
TrypV1 Mechanism for sensing pain
Capsaicin binds to TrypV1 receptor (located throughout the PNS) and triggers conformational change in receptor, sending APs to the brain.
Gate Control Theory of Olfaction
Theory of the processes of nociception. States that non-painful input closes the “gates” to the painful input, which prevents pain sensation from traveling to the CNS
Pheromones
Molecules released by one member of a species that trigger an innate response in another member.
Accessory olfactory epithelium
Specialized part of olfactory epithelium. Sends projections to the accessory olfactory bulb which then sends signals to the brain
Vomeronasal System
Within the accessory olfactory epithelium. Has basal and apical cells with receptors. Basal cells send axons through acc. olfactory bulb-> glomerulus -> mitral/tufted cell of amygdala
Amygdala (location and function)
Located in temporal lobe. Inolved with emotion, aggression, mating, memory, decision making, and emotional reactions
Olfaction
Sense of smell
Olfactory Epithelium
Area of sensory cells in the nostril. Thousands of types of olfactory epithelial cells, each with a different receptor.
Cribriform Plate
Separates the olfactory epithelium from the brain. It is a bone with little holes that allow olfactory sensations to be projected to the brain
Olfactory bulb
A bundle of nerves that sends projections from the cribriform plate and olfactory epithelium. Located just above the cribriform plate closer to the brain.
Glomerulus
Olfactory bulb that “catches” all of the action potentials fired by olfactory sensory cells that are all sensitive to the same molecule. (ex: a benzene glomerulus). Glomerulus synapses onto mitral/tufted cell
Mitral/tufted cell
Postsynaptic cell of gomerulus/olfactory bulb. Projects olfactory signal to the brain
GPCR olfacotry pathway
Scent molecule binds to a GPCR on an “odor molecule.” Activates GPCR on olfactory epithelia. GP dissociates and triggers cascade inside the cell. GP binds to an ion channel that allows outside cells to enter this one. Open cell triggers an AP (which travels to cribriform plate, then glomerulus, then mitral/tufted cell, then brain).
Ipsilateral and Contralateral Senses
Ipsilateral: Olfaction and gustation - because they do not synapse onto the thalamus. Contralateral: Vision, hearing, touch
Labeled-line Theory of Olfaction
Each receptor would respond to specific stimuli and is directly linked to the brain
Vibrational Theory of Olfaction
Vibrational frequency of a molecule gives that molecule its specific odor profile
Steric/Shape Theory of Olfaction
Odors fit into receptors similar to lock and key
Anosmia
Inability to perceive odor
Olfactory Pathway in the Brain
Signal is transmitted from olfactory bulb to amygdla and piriform cortex. Then is transmitted to orbitofrontal cortex
Gustation
Sense of taste
5 Main Tastes
Bitter, salty, sweet, sour, and umami (ability to taste glutamate)
Papillae
Structures that contain taste buds and their taste receptors
Location and distribution of taste buds
Can be fungiform (anterior), foliate (side), and circumvallate (back). Concentrated at front of the tongue
Fungiform papillae
Mushroom-shaped structures located on tip and side of tongue that contain taste-buds
Foliate papillae
Folded strucutres at the back of the tongue on both sides. Contain taste buds
Circumvallate papillae
Flat mound structures found at the back of the tongue an contain taste buds
Filiform papillae
DO NOT contain taste buds and are found all over the tongue. Exclusive form of papillae at the center of the tongue
Tastant
A substance that stimulates sense of taste
Gustucin
A protein associated with the sense of taste
Chorda Tympani
Nerve part of the 7th cranial nerve that carries signals from the front 2/3 of the tongue
9th and 10th cranial nerves
Glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves. Carry signals from the rear 1/3 of the tongue
Labeled-lines Model of Gustation
Each taste bud has 5 axons that all send separate information to the different parts of the gustatory cortex. All synapse at different locations
GPCR-dependent tastes
Sweet, umami, and bitter cells rely on GPCRs
Ion channel-dependent
Sour and salty. Ex: NaCl binds directly to a receptor and causes ion channel to open –> positive ions flow in –> depolarization –> AP
Ion-channel response to sour taste
Sour tastants bind to receptors that react with H+. Binding of H+ receptor causes K+ channels to close
First locaiton of taste/smell signals in the brain
Orbitofrontal cortex (NOT the thalamus)
Consciousness
Awareness of one’s self and environment. Varying levels of consciousness
States of Consciousness
Alertness, daydreaming, drowsiness, sleep
Electroencephalograms (EEGs)
Measure brainwaves (beta, alpha, delta, theta), which differ in frequency with each state of consciousness
Beta brainwaves
12-130 Hz. Associated with awake/concentration. One being awake and alert for too long can cause high beta levels and increased stress, anxiety and restlessness
Alpha brainwaves
8-13 Hz. Daydreaming state. Disappear in drowsiness but reappear in deep sleep.
Theta brainwaves
407 Hz. Appear in drowsiness and very early/light sleep. Slower/lower frequency than alpha waves
Delta brain waves
0.5 - 3 Hz. Long and low frequency. Active in deep sleep or coma
Brainwaves
Neural rhythms that can be measured by EEGs
Sleep stages - what are they and the 4 main ones?
Distinct patterns during sleep. 4 main stages: N1, N2, N3, REM. Cycle through all four in 90 min
N1 Stage of sleep
Stage 1. Dominated by theta waves. Experience strange sensations: hypnagonic hallucinations, Tetris effect, and/or hypnic jerks
N2 Stage of sleep
Stage 2. People are difficult to awaken. More theta waves than N1, also see sleep spindles and K-complexes
Sleep spindles
Rapid bursts of brain actiivty. May help inhibit certain perceptions so we maintain a tranquil state during sleep (like sleeping through loud noises). In N2 stage.
K-complexes
Suppress cortical arousal and keep one asleep. Aid in sleep-based memory consolidation (transfer of some mem to long-term mem), especially declarative/explicit memories. Ex: sleeping through a gentle touch
N3 Stage of sleep
Slow-wave sleep. Very difficult to awaken. Lots of delta waves. Sleep walking/talking occurs in this phase. Declarative memory consolidation occurs. Regular breathing and regular slow brain waves
REM stage
Eyes move rapidly beneath your eyelids. Most other muscles are paralyzed. Decreased prefrontal cortex activity. Stage when most dreaming occurs - paralyzation inhibits physical actions. Most important stage for memory consolidation. Forms episodic memories. Combination of alpha, beta, and dyssynchronous waves (similar to beta waves).
Paradoxical sleep
Another name for REM sleep
Circadian Rhythms
Regular body rhythms across 24-hour period. Control body temp and sleep cycle. Queued by daylight (or even artificial light). Changes as you age. Controlled by melatonin
Melatonin
Hormone produced in the pineal gland. Controls Circadian Rhythms
When must one awaken to remember their dreams?
During REM sleep
Freud’s Dream Theory
reams are unconscious feelings, thoughts, and desires that need to be interpreted
Evolutionary biology theory fo dreams
Threat simulation in preparation for the real world. Also could be simulation of problem-solving
Manifest content (Freud Dream Theory)
Literal meaning of one’s dream
Latent content (Freud’s Dream Theory)
Hidden meaning behind one’s dream
Activation Synthesis Hypothesis (Dreams Theory)
Brain is trying to find meaning from random brain activity (therefore, dreams likely have no meaning).
Effects of sleep deprivation
Irritability, poorer memory and attention, increased rates of motor vehicle accidents, increased risk of depression, more susceptible to obesity because body makes more cortisol and hunger hormone (ghrelin)
Insomnia and possible treatments
Persistent trouble falling or staying asleep. Treatments involve psychological training and lifestyle changes
Narcolepsy
Inability to prevent oneself from falling into a sleeping fit (each usually last about 5 minutes, occur randomly)
Sleep apnea
Stop breathing while sleeping, body realizes its not getting enough air, wakes up just long enough to gasp for air, then fall back asleep without even realizing (can happen 100X per night). Don’t get enough N3 sleep (makes people tired even after a full night of sleep).
Induced State of Consciouness
Examples include hypnosis and medication
Hypnotism
Person becomes more susceptible to suggestion in this state - but only if they want to. More alpha waves in this state.
False Memories
Memories that incorporate hypnotizer’s expectations even when not intended. Possible consequence of hypnosis used for memory retrieval, which is very dangerous because memories are malleable
Dissociation Theory of hyptnosis
Hypnotism is an extreme form of divided consciousness
Social Influence Theory of hypnosis
People do and report what is expected of them, like actors caught up in their roles
Meditation
Training people to self-regulate their attention and awareness. Can be guided and focused on something in particular or can be unfocused, like letting the mind wander
Psychoactive Drugs
Alter consciousness, perceptions, mood, calm us down, make us feel more alert. Classified by action and effect on the body
Four main categories of psychoactive drugs
Depressants, stimulants, hallucinogens, opiates/opioids
Depressants
Lower the body’s basic functions and nueral activity, lower CNS activity. Vasodilator is low, vasoconstricotor is high.
Alcohol
A depressant. Decreases inhibitions –> decreases cognitive control. Lack of coordination, slurred speech, disrupts REM sleep and memory formation
Barbiturates
Depressants used to induce sleep or reduce anxiety. Depresses CNS.
Anticonvulsants
Depressant drugs that reduce seizures, specifically under the umbrella of barbiturates
Benzodiazepines
More commonly prescribed. depressants used to treat the same conditions as barbiturates. Act by enhancing the brain’s response to GABA -> open up GABA-activates Cl channels in the brain.
3 Types of Benzodiazepines
Short, intermediate, and long-acting. Short and intermediates are used for sleep. Long is used for anxiety
Stimulants (description and examples)
Excite the CNS, increase HR/BP, alertness, vasoconstriction. Ex: caffeine, amphetamines (adderall), methamphetamines, MDMA (Molly/Ecstasy), Cocaine, Nicotine, THC
The effects of which psychoactive drugs are similar to stress?
Stimulants
Cocaine
Stimulant. Blocks dopamine reuptake
Amphetamines
Stimulants. Blocks dopamine reuptake and stimulates presynaptic dopamine release
Caffeine
Stimulant. Inhibits the enzyme that breaks down cAMP (cAMP normally leads to the decrease of HR)
Nicotine
Stimulant. Enhances ACh release.
THC
Stimulant, hallucinogen, and depressant. Works on anandamide, increases dopamine and GABA activity.
Hallucinogens/Psychedelics
Cause distorted perceptions/hallucinations, may cause heightened sensations. Affects energy levels, emotions, personality, dilation of pupils. Ex: mescaline, peyote, PCP, LSD, psilocybin
LSD
Hallucinogen that modifies serotonin NT be affecting the 5-HT2 receptor family.
Myadrisis
Dilation of pupil
Opioids vs Opiates
Opiates are natural whereas opioids are synthetic
Opiates/Opioids
Like depressants - decrease CNS function, HR/BP, and up relaxation/induce sleep. Analgesic effect by acting endorphin receptors. Vasodilator and constrict pupils.
Death by opiates/opioids
Respiratory failure
MDMA
Can be a stimulant or hallucinogen
Psychoactive drug used from PTSD treatment
Hallucinogens. Allow people to access painful memories, but detached from strong emotions. Helps people come to terms with it
NTs of Reward Pathways in the Brain
Dopamine levels go up (produced in Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA) in midbrain). Serotonin levels go down (preventing one from feeling satiated or content)
Nucleus Accumbens
Controls motor functions
Prefrontal cortex
Focuses attention and planning
Hippocampus (location and function)
In temporal lobe. Involved in memory formation
Tolerance
A shift in the dose-response curve that causes decreased sensitivity ot a drug due to exposure. ie One gets used to a drug so they need more of it to achieve the same feeling/effect.
Cross tolerance
Reduction in the efficacy or responsiveness to a novel drug due to a common CNS target
Withdrawal Symptoms
Occur after prolonged use. Sign of addiction. May be acute or post-acute. Can cause illness and even death.
Acute withdrawal
Within a few weeks of use. Mainly physical symptoms. Different for each person
Post-acute withdrawal
Usually lasts about 2 years. Roller-coaster of good stretches and bad stretches, varying in length. Fewer physical symptoms and more mental/psychological. Same symptoms for everyone: mood swings, anxiety, irritability, tiredness, varaible energy, low enthusiasm, variable concentration, disturbed sleep.
Substance-induced disorders
Conditions that are caused by a substance. Can be mood-related (high mood - mania, low mood - depression) or related to anxiety, sleep, sexual function, psychosis (loss of contact with reality)
Methadone
Activates opiate receptors, but acts slower than heroine and the lik, so it dampens the high. Reduces cravings, eases withdrawal, and if heroine is taken, the user cannot experience the same high because receptors are already full of longer-acting methadone
Cognitive behavioral therapy
Psychological treatment for drug disorders that addresses both behavioral and cognitive components of addiction. Patients must learn to develop more positive thought patterns and coping behaviors, learn to anticipate problematic situations and to self-monitor for cravings so they can apply their coping stategies. Long-lasting
Selective attention
The ability to maintain attention while being presented with masking or interfering stimuli. Instead of division of one’s focusing abilities, one task is being selected between the two (or more) at hand.
Exogenous Cues
AKA External cues: obvious, attention-grabbing stimuli in the environment. Exogenous attention is driven by botton-up or external events. Ex: loud noises
Endogenous cues
AKA Internal cues: Require internal knowledge to understand the cue and the intention to follow it. Endogenous attention is dirven by top-down or internal events. Ex: a mouse arrown on a computer drawing one’s attention
Perceptual blindness
AKA In-attentional blindness: the inability to recognize and unexpected object, event, or other stimulus that is in plain sight. Due to a psychological lapse in attention rather than a defect in sensory perception. “Missing something that is right in front of you”
Change blindness
Fail to notice changes from a previous to current state in environment. Ex: not noticing your mom gets a haircut
Distal vs Proximal Stimuli
Distal are the objects and events out in the world about you. Aware of and respond to this because this is what is important.
Proximal stimul: the patterns of stimul from distal stimuli that actually reach your senses. i.e. it is the actual light falling on the retina
Covert orienting
The act of bringing the spotlight of attention on an object or event WITHOUT body or eye movement
Overt Orienting
A person moving all/part of their body to alter or maximize the senory impact of a stimulus
Attentional capture
Occurs when attention is attracted by the motion of an object
Neglect Syndrome
Occurs when damage to the brain causes a change or loss in the capacity of the spatial dimension of divided attention
NT that modulates attentional network and its place of production
Norepinephrine produced in the locus ceruleus
NT that modulates the network responsible for changing focus from one stimulus to another
Acetylcholine produced in the basal forebrain
Basal forebrain
Collection of strucutres located to the front of and below the striatum. Includes the nucleus accumbens, nucleus basalis, and medial septal nuclei. Important the production of ACh for the entire CNS
Executive attention and the NT (and place of production) that is responsible for it
Involved in goal-directed behavior, monitoring conflicts between internal processes, and anticipating effects of behavior. Dopamine from the ventral tagmental area is associated with executing attention
Shadowing task
Experiment that studies selective attention. Two different stimuli are played into the right and left ears through headphones. then subject is asked to repeat everything said into one ear and ignore the other.
Broadbent’s Early Selection Theory
Theory of selective attention that supports idea that all environmental info goes into sensory register, and then gets transferred to selective filter right away, which identifies what you are supposed to be attending to via basic physical characteristics and filters out stuff in unattended ear based on things you don’t need to understand. Finally moves info to perceptual processes where friends’ voices are identified, meaning assigned to words, and ultimately allows one to engage in other cognitive processes like deciding how to respond.
Basically:
sensory register -> selective filter -> perceptual process -> conscious
Deutch and Deutch’s Late Selection Theory
Places broadband selective filter after perceptual processes, meaning that everythat that comes into one’s sensory register is assigned meaning and then selectively filtered to determine what goes on to conscious awareness.
sensory register -> perceptual process -> selective filter -> conscious
think: “the Detsch (German) pay attention to everything!!” and makes sense bc Germans are intense
Treisman’s Attenuation Theory
Instead of selective filter, we have attenuators that weaken but does not eliminate input from unattended “ear.” Then some stimuli get to perceptual processes, but are assigned low importance if from unattended ear.
sensory register -> attenuator -> perceptual process - conscious
think: Treismans is SHARP as a T. He is smar enough to only attenuate and then perceive
Johnson’s and Heinz’s proposal on selective attention
The location of the info attenuator was able to be varies by the listener depending on the demand necessitated by a particular attention task
Spotlight Model of Attention
Selective attention - takes info from all 5 sense but doesn’t pay attention to everything. Aware on an unconscious level - ex: priming
Priming
Exposure to one stimulus affects response to another stimulus, even if we haven’t been consciously paying attention to it. Ex: we’re primed to respond to our name - why it’s a strong prim for pulling our attention
Resource model of attention
We have limited resources in attention. Resources that are easily overtasked if we try to pay attention to multiple things at once. ie not good at multitasking
Factors that influcence one’s ability to mutlitask
Task similarity: like listening to music while writing a paper - best to listen to classical music because it is harder to multitask with similar tasks
Task difficulty: harder tasks require more focus - ex: texting while driving is more difficult that talking to a passenger
Practice: activities well-practiced become automatic processes or things that occur without need for attention. Whether task is automatic vs controlled is determine by the amoutn of practice
Infomration processing model
Proposes that brains are similar to computers in that we get input from environment, process it, and then output decisions. Bottom-up/stimulus-driven theory. Assumes limited storage and attention capacities. Also assumes serial processes (when the brain is actually capable of parallel processing)
Iconic memory
What you see. Lasts for half a second in the sensory register
Echoic memory
What you hear. Lasts for 3-4 seconds in sensory register
Partial report technique
Report one part of a whole field in cued recall
Working memory and capacity
AKA Short-term memory: the sensory info one actually processes, or the memory that is stored while it is held in attention. Consiste of what you are thinking about at a moment. Capacity: 7 +/- 2 pieces of info at a time, although this varies based on how complicated the stimuli are.
Serial position effect
Primacy and recency effects
Viso-spatial sketchpad
Visual and spatial info are porcessed in this
Phonological loop
Where verbal info from iconic and echoic memory is processed. Ex: repeating a phone number to yourself.
Store-capacity is about 2 seconds
Central executive
Coordinates visual and verbal info from visuo-spatial sketchpad and phonological loop. Supervises the cognitive process of memory. Creates an integrated representation and stores it in the episodic buffer
Episodic buffer
Storage place of the representations that are concocted by the central executrive
Dual Coding Hypothesis
It’s easier to remember words associated with images than either one alone.
Method of Loci
Linking info to locations. Tie information you need to remember to certain stopsalong a route that you already know. A type of mnemonic
Operational Span Testing
A test in which subjects are asked to perform a simple mathematical verification and then read a word, with a recall test follwing some number of those verify/read pairs. The max number of words that can be recalled is the operation span.
Categories of long-term memroy and capacity
Unlimited capacity. The two catagories are explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declarative)
Explicit memory and its subsections
Declarative facts/events one can explicitly (clearly) describe. Expliciti memory is a type of long term memory that focuses on recalling previous experiences and info. Can be divided into episodic (event-related) and semantic (simple facts)
Implicit Memories/Non-declarative
Involve things you may not articulate / procedural memories. Includes previous experiences that aid in the performance of a task without conscious awareness of these previous experiences. Formed unconsciously. Includes all memories formed by conditioning, habits,
Storage area of habits/implicit memories in the brain
Basal ganglia
Negative priming
An implicit memory effect in which prior exposure to a stimulus unfavorably influences the response to the same stimulus. Caused by experiencing the stimulus and then ignoring it. Lowers the speed of response to slower than un-primed levels
Positive priming
Speeds up processing, caused by simply experiencing the stimulus. Thought to be caused by spreading activation, meaning that the first stimulus activates parts of a particular representation or association in memory just before carrying out an action or task. The representation is already partially activated when the second stimulus is encountered, so less additional activation is needed for one to become consciously aware of it.
Autobiographical memory
Memory consisting of episodes recollected from an individual’s life, based on a combination of episodic and semantic memories
Encoding memory
Transferring information from the temporary store in working memory into the permanent store in long-term memory. More successful when more cognitive effor is actively used, especially when using a combination of encoding strategies
Encoding specificity
Enhanced memory when testing takes place under the same conditions as learning
Rote rehearsal
Saying the same thing over and over. Least effective encoding strategy.
Chunking
Grouping info we receive into meaningful categories we already know to ease memorization
Mnemonic devices
Link info that you are trying to learn into previously existing long-term information that is already in your memory. Types: imagery (the crazier the better), Pegword system (verbal anchors that link workd that rhyme with the number), Method of Loci, Acronym
Self-referencing
Think about new info and how it relates to you personally. Ex: imagine learning something about history, you then learn the info by talking to the general
Preparing the teach
Learning strategy in which one pretends to be learning in order to be able to tach the info to someone else later. More likely to put effort into organization and understanding immediately
Spacing
Encoding strategy that involves spreading out study sessions over time in shorter periods rather than cramming.
Free recall
Recalling without any cues. Most difficult form of recall. Influenced by serial position effects (hardest to remember items in the middle of a list).
Cued recall
Recalling with clues/cues for aid. Easier than free recall.
Recognition
Easiest form of recall
Schema
Metal blueprint containing comon aspects of world. Basis for information we retrieve
Source amnesia
The inability to remember where, when or how previously learned info has been acquired, while retaining factual knowledge
Flashbulb memories
Highly emotional memories that are extrememly vivid. May seem as though they are remembered as real life, they are susceptible to reconstruction
Long-Term Potentiation
Connections of neurons strengthen with use of that given pathway. An example of synaptic plasticity. With repeated stimulation, the same pre-synaptic neuron stimulation converts into greater/stronger post-synaptic neuron potential –> strongter synapse. This is how learning occurs.
Neural Plasticity
Changes in brain size. Involves function of envirnomental influences
Decay (regarding memory)
A reason for forgetting. Neglecting to use a pathway between cue and memory forces the pathway to become weaker, making it harder to stimulate the memory. Studied first by Ebbinghaus
Interference (regarding memory) - the two types
Retroactive interference: New learning impairs old info. Refers to new info interfering with memory of earlier information
Proactive interference: Something you learned in the past impairs learning the future. Earlier info interferes with later info
Memories that remain stable with age
Implicit/procedural and recognition memory
Memory-related cognitive function that decline with age
Episodic memories (formation declines, old memories remain stable), processing speed, divided attention, prospective memory
Prospective memory
Remembering to do something in the future
Dementia
Decline in memory and other cognitive functions to the point of interfering with daily life. Results from excessive damage to brain tissue. Most common form is Alzheimer’s
Alzheimer’s Disease
Characterized by death of neurons, cerebral cortex shrinking in size, and buildup of amyloid plaques. Patients usually retain procedural and episodic memory early on. Symptoms: short-term memoly-loss (progresses into long term), difficulty with attention, planning, semantic memory, and abstract thinking. Later progression may involve emotion instability and loss of bodily functions.
Korsakoff’s Syndrome
Severe memory-loss not caused by brain injury. Caused by lack of vitamin B1 or thiamine–>Caused by malnutrition, eating disorders, and especially alcoholism. Not progressive. Wernicke’s encephalopathy is a precursor. Can be trated with supplements and lifestyle changes.
Wernicke’s encephalopathy
Poor balance, abnormal eye movements, mild confusion, and memory loss. Precursor to Korsakoff’s syndrome.
Retrograde vs Anterograde amnesia
R: Inability to recall info previously encoded.
A: Inability to encode new memories
Retrograde vs Anterorade Amnesia
Retrograde: Inability to remember experiences before a brain injury
Anterograde: Inability to form long-term memories after a brain injury, but able to remember memories from before the accidnet
Semantic Networks
Concepts are organized in one’s mind as connected ideas. For closely related ideas, these networks are likely shorter, and then are likely longer for less closely related ideas
Hierarchical Semantic Networks
Storage of info in a hierarchical way, from higher order categories to lower order categories. We stor info at the highest category possible, broad categories/characteristics are stoed at higher level nodes.
Cognitive Economy Principle
States that the human brain is efficient. Longer distance between nodes or more nodes between stimulus and conclusion = longer time required to verify a connection
Modifed Semantic Network
Every individual semantic network develops based on experience and knowledge. Some links might be shorter/longer for different indivuals and there may be direct links for higher order categories to examplars
Spreading activaiton
All ideas in one’s brain are connected. Pulling up one memory pulls up others, as well.
Stronger nodal links (regarding memory/processing)
Correlate with decreased processing time (as does learning). Stengthening occurs via more and more exposure.
Piaget’sTheory on Children’s Cognitive Abilities
Believed that children are not miniature adults, rather that they actively construct their understanding of the world as they develop. As their bodies grow, so do their minds. Piaget placed age boundaries on the stages of cognitive development, which have not proven to be accurate for all children, but they do follow Piaget’s proposed general sequence of events ( a schema)
Paget’s Stages of Development
1) Sensorimotor stage: 0-2-year-olds gather info via the 5 senses, love peak-aboo, and have issues with object permanence and stranger anxiety
2) Preoperational stage: 2-6/7-year-olds engage in pretend play, start understanding words and symbols, and are very egocentric
3) Concrete operational stage: 7-11-year-olds learn empathy, logic, reversibility, math skills, and conversational skills
4) Formal operational stage: 12+ year olds develop understanding of abstract consequences, moral reasoning, and hypothetical situations, ultimately allowing them to solve novel problems
Schemas
Mental models/framework that we develop to organize and interpret new info. Must be dynamic through assimilation ad accommodation
Assimilation: how we describe new info/experiences in terms of our current understanding/schemas
Accommodation: how we later adjust our schemas to incorporate new experiences to remember
Trial and Error Method of Problem Solving
Taking random guesses until something works. Highly inefficient.
Algorithm Method of Problem Solving
Methodical approach. Logically taking a set step-by-step approach to reach solutions until you find the right one. Not efficient but you will eventually find the answer
Heuristics
Mental shortcuts/”rules of thumb” that allow us to find solutions quickly. Reduces the number of solutions we need to try by taking an approach as to what possibilities could exist and eliminates trying unlikely possibilities. Doesn’t guarantee a correct solution. Ex: means-ends analysis, working backwards, intuition
Means-ends analysis
Solving the biggest “sub-problem” of a large overall problem. Involves analysis and breakdown of this overall problem at hand
Working backwards
Start with a goal and use it to suggest connections back to current state. Used in mathematical proofs and mazes
Intuition
Relying on instinct. High chance of error
Fixation
Getting stuck on a wrong approach to a problem and maintaining the strategy, despite its inefficiency
Incubation Method of Problem Solving
Insight comes with time
Type I error
False positive
Type II Error
False negative
Decision making
We make a judgement of the desirability/probability of a certain outcome
Availability Heuristic
Using examples that come to mind. Helpful, but often, our most memorable experiences do not match the real state of the world. Ex: The news shows more shark attacks than fireworks accidents, so you assume that shark attacks are more fatal, but in reality, fireworks are
Representative heuristic
How well something matches a mental prototype (e.g. a woman assuming a woman dressed in scrubs is a nurse rather than a surgeon)
Ex: Linda is very outspoken and bright, majored in philosophy, and has publicly demonstrated in antinuclear organizations. When asked between the two, people that do not know Linda are more likely to say that Linda is a feminist bank teller than just a bank teller because her personality appears to fit the prototype of a feminist
Can lead to Conjunction Fallacy: the belief that a co-occurrence of two events is more likely than just one happening
Conjunction Fallacy
The belief that co-occurrence of two events is more likely than just one happening
Availability vs Representative Heuristics
Availability = actual memories in mind Representative = not thinking of exact memories, thinking of a prototype/general idea
Biases-and-Adjustment Heuristic
Requires a person to create a set point or anchor, and then the answer is adjusted based on comparing new info to the anchor
Biases
Beliefs that prevent us from making correct decisions of from changing decisions once they are made
Overconfidence bias
Ex: Going into a test without knowing a lot of info. Could be due to ease of processing during studying.
Can also be experienced when one is overconfident in an argument that is not concretely backed up
Belief perseverance bias
Ignore/rationalize disconfirming facts. Ex: During elections learned about and then ignored facts about someone you had previously decided that you liked
Confirmation bias
Actively seeking out only facts that confirm you prior beliefs
Framing effects
How you present the decision can affect decisions as well.
Ex: disease mortality described in terms of number that live vs number that die, and the course of action you choose. Most will choose the course of action that involves the mortality rate described by the number of people that survive
Semantic Networks
Concepts are organized in mind in terms of connected ideas. Parallel to how info might be stored in a computer. Links are likely shorter for closely related ideas, or longer for less-related ideas. Concepts are represented by nodes. The longer it takes us to verify the connections between nodes, the longer it takes for us to verify that link.
Not the end all-be all because there are such things as modified semantic networks (exceptions to the rules above)
Spreading activation
When one concept in a semantic pathway is activated, related concepts are pulled in as well
Spearman’s Theory of One General Intelligence
Evidence comes from the fact that people who score well on one test also tend to score well on other types of tests. Factor underlying these inconsistent abilities is called the g factor (g = general intelligence)
Theory for 3 Types of Intelligence (name and describe them)
The 3 types: analytical, creative, and practical
Analytical: academic abilities, the only type assessed by IQ test, higher=tend to do better in school
Creative: ability to adapt to new situations and generate novel ideas and adapt
Practical intelligence: ability to solve ill-defined problems like getting a bookcase up a curvy staircase
Emotional Intelligence
Perceive, understand, and manage and use emotions in interactions with others
Fluid Intelligence
One’s ability to reason quickly and abstractly, as when solving novel logic problems. “Thinking on your feet.” Helps people see patterns, organize, and identify feature and spatial relationships.
Crystallized intelligence
Refers to accumulated knowledge and verbal skills. Increases with age, whereas fluid intelligence tends to decrease with age
Alfred-Binet
First to develop an intelligence test, although was actually intending to measure a child’s mental age. Designed for French children
Lewis Terman and the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test
Terman: modified Binet’s Intelligence Test to create the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test (SBIT)
SBIT: Started being used to measure intelligence of immigrants (language barrier was a major issue)
Galton’s idea of hereditary genius
Human ability is herditary
Binet’s idea of mental age
How a child at a specific age performs intellectually compared to average intellectual performance for that physical age in years
Convergent intelligence
IQ test-related intelligence (puzzles, vocabulary words, arithmetic). Proposed by Guilford
Theories of Intelligence (acronym!!)
ST[a]G[e]S
S = Spearman (General) T = Thurnstone (Primary mental abilities) G = Gardner (Mutliple intelligence) S = Sternberg (Triarchic multiple intellignce)
Spearman’s Theory of Intelligence
General: G-factor predicts our intelligence in multiple academic areas. Limited in what is considers to be intelligence
Thurnstone’s Theory of Intelligence
Primary Mental Abilities: 7 factors of intelligence are word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial reasoning, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning, memory. Limited
Gardner’s Theory of Intelligence
Theory of Multiple Intelligence: 9 independent intelligences are logical-mathematical, verbal-linguistic, spatial-visual, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, musical, naturalist, and existential intelligence
Sternberg’s Theory of Intelligence
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence: the 3 independent intelligences are analytical, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence
Side of the brain that dominates language abilities in most people
Left (90%)
Broca’s area, Broca’s Aphasia
Area: In frontal lobe. Responsible for speaking/language processing
Aphasia: “broken speech” or even halted characterize by apraxia, a disorder of motor planning
Wernicke’s area, Wernicke’s Aphasia
Area: In temporal lobe. Responsible for understanding language.
Aphasia: Also called fluent aphasia. Word salad. People often speak grammatically correct but do not understand what they are hearing or saying
Aphasia
Disorder that involves language. Communication disorder that causes problems with speaking, listening, reading, and writing
Glocal aphasia
Both Broca’s and Wernicke’s Aphasia together. Combination of impaired comprehension and production of speech
Arcuate Fasciculus
Nerve fibers that connect Broca’s and Wenicke’s. They are present in deaf people that know sign language. Damaged in conduction/associative aphasia
Conduction aphasia
Due to damage to the arcuate fasciculus. Makes it difficult to repeat things even when they understand what is being said.
Agraphia
Inability to write
Anomia/anomic aphasia
inability to name things. Difficulties in naming objects or retrieving words
Corpus Callosum
Thick band of nerve fibers that connects the two hemispheres. Communication is disrupted when this is severed (split brain patient)
Contralateral Organization of the brain
Left visual field info gets processed by right side and vice versa
Left brain vs Right brain
Left: logical, sequential, rational, analytical, objective, looks at parts
Right: random, intuitive, holistic, synthesizing, subjective, looks at wholes
Prosody
Located on right hemisphere. Concerend with larger units of speech like syllables. Involved in intonation, tone, stress, and rhythm. May reflect various features of the speaker or the utterance (emotional star of the speaker), the form of utterance (statement, question, command), the presence of irony/sarcasm, emphasis, or other elements of language that may not be encoded by grammar or vocab
Behaviorists-Empiricists ‘ view of language
Believe language is just conditioned behavior, meaning that children aren’t born with anything and that they only acquire language through operant conditioning. Does not explain how babies can produce sentences they have never heard before
Nativists-Rationalists’ view of language
Language must be innate (children born with the ability to learn it). Associated with Noam Chomsky.
Materialists’ view of language
Look at what happened in the brain when people think/spea/write
Universalism
Thought determines language completely. Your thought dictates language
Piaget
Came up with cognitive development in children. He believed that language is influenced by cognitive development. e.g Children developing object permanence will start to develop words like “gone,” “missing”
Vygotsky
Language and thought are both independent but converge through development. Eventually learn to use them at the same time via socialization. Children develop language by socializing with adults that already know the language
Linguistic Determinism
Language has an influence on thought. They are called the Weak and Strong hypotheses, referring to how much influence they think language has on thought
Weak Linguistic Determinism (relativism)
Linguistic structure influences, but does not determine, the context of everyday encounters
Strong Linguistic Determination (Sapir-Whorfian hypothesis)
Language determines thought completely. People understand their world through language, and language thus shapes how we experience the world. Linguistic structure determines how and about what an individual thinks
Interactionist approach (to language)
Believes that biological and social factors have to interact in order for children to learn language. Children’s desire to communicate with others motivates them to learn language. Associated with Vygotsky
Critical/Sensitive Period
A point in early development that can have a significant influence on physiological or behavioral functioning in later life
Lexicon
A set of vocabulary terms. The entire set of morphemes in a language. Ex: the lexicon of ASL would be the total combination of facial expressions, hand movements, locations, and body language that can help signers form meaninful words
Lexical access
Identifying a word and connecting it to its meaning, which ahs been stored in long-term memory
Phonology
Phonetic component (actual sounds) of a language
Phonemes (def and how many in English)
The smallest unit of sound. 40 in English
Morphology
Structure of words. Many words are constructed of several morphemes (smallest significant unit of meaning of a word)
Semantics
Association of a meaning with a word. The broad meaning of each word, phrase, sentence, or text.
Syntax
How words are put together in sentences. Describes how words are arranged to create grammatically correct sentences
Pragmatics
Dependence of language on context and pre-existing knowledge. Affected by prosody (rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices)
Limbic System (def. and name structures)
Set of structures in the brain that are responsible for emotions and storage/retrieval of memories.
Structures: HAT Hippo = Hypothalamus, Amygdala, Thalamus, and Hippocampus
Amygdala
The aggression center of the brain (think “angry almond”). Stimulation fo the amygdala leads to anger/violence and fear/anxiety
Hippocampus
Major player in long-term memory formation from short-term memories. If destroyed, one suffers anterograde amnesia
Hypothalamus
Below the thalamus. Regulates the ANS: fight/flight vs rest/digest. Controls endocrine system by triggerin hormones like NE and epinephrine. Responsible for hunger, sleep, thirst, sex
The 4 F’s of the hypothalamus: fighting, fleeing, feeding, fornification (sex)
Thalamus
Sensory relay station. Everything you hear, taste, etc gets sent up to the proper area of the cortex by the thalamus. Smell is the only sense that bypasses the thalamus
Which hemisphere is more active with positive emotions?
Left
Which hemisphere is more active with negative emotions?
Right
Prefrontal cortex
Responsible for many higher-order functions: executive control, problem-solving, decision making, actions in social situations. Undergoes most development from birth.
Phineas Gage: iron rod penetrated his PFC and changed his personality
Physiological markers of emotion by sub-division of the ANS
Symp: dilated pupils, decreased salivation, increased respiration rate, increased heart rate, increased glucose release, increased adrenaline, decrease in digestion
Parasymp: pupils constrict, increased salivation, decreased respiration and heat rates, increased glucose storage, decreased adrenaline, increased digestion
The Three Components of Emotion
Physiological, cognitive, and behavioral
6 Main Universal Emotions
Found by Paul Ekman. They are happiness, sadness, fear, disgust, anger, and surprise.
All of them have consistent facial expressions across cultures and are easily recognizable
James-Lange Theory of emotion
Experience of emotion is due to perception of physiological responses.
Event –> physiological response –> interpretation of physiological response –> emotion
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
Refuted James-Lange approach because physiological response system was too slow to produce emtion that seemed to happen almost instantly, so he believed that emotion and physiological response happened simultaneously
Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion
States that physiological and cognitive responses simultaneously form experience of emotion.
Event –> physiological response and identify reason for the situation –> emotion
Lazarus Theory of Emotion
The experience of emotion depends on how the situation is cognitively labeled: if situation is labeled as “good,” then emotion is positive, and if labeled “bad,” then emotion is negative.
Labeling depends on cultural/individual differences
Event –> Cognitively label the event –> Emotion and physiological response based on the label
Yerkes-Dodson Law
People perform best when they are moderately aroused.
The relationship between long-term memory and fear follows a Yerke-Dodson curve, meaning the extreme emotional responses usually impact memory negatively, and moderate emotions are associated with optimal memory recall
Stress
Process by which humans appraise and cope with the environmental threads and challenges
Richard Lazarus
Proposed the Appraisal Theory of Stress: stress arises less from physical events but more from the assessment/interpretation of those stresses/events. There are two stages of cognitive stress: primary and secondary appraisal.
Primary determines whether the stressor is irrelevant, positive/benign, or stressful/negative
Secondary shows that individual’s ability to cope with the stressor (how to react to it)
Four major causes of stressors
- Significant life changes: new job, marriage, leaving home, death of family member
- Catastrophic events: a large scale event that everyone considers threatening, like wars, natural disasters, etc
- Daily hassles: seemingly minor events that are greatly aggravating (higher rate of these in lower SES)
- Ambient stressors: global stressors that are integrated into the environment. Hard to control. Ex: pollution, noise, etc
Sites of stress hormone synthesis/release
Adrenal medulla: produces and release catecholamines (norepinephrine/noradrenaline and epinephrine/adrenaline)
Adrenal cortex: releases cortisol (glucocorticoid, a steroid hormone, suppresses the immune system)
Which hormone is important to the “tend and befriend” response to stress?
Oxytocin moderates the stress response. It is strongly linked to estrogen, which is why this response si so much stronger in women
General Adaptation Syndrome
- Alarm phase
- Resistance
- Exhaustion
Physical effects of chronic stress
Increased BP possibly leading to vascular disease or coronary artery disease. Metabolism gets upset becuase cortisol mobilizes glucose to be released –> exacerbates conditions like DM/. Shutdown/major decrease in reproductive function. Immune function is affected: overuse of inflammatory response, increased time required to heal/fight illness
Areas of the brain most affected cortisol (ie where are the most receptors?)
Hippocampus, frontal cortex
Anhedonia
Inability to experience pleasure. Occurs often with depression. Most stressors are perceived.
Anterior cingulate
Anterior part of the frontal cortex. Stops responding to serotonin when the body is under chronic stress.
The three A’s of stress-related behavioral response
Anger - quickness to anger has been seen to correlate with heart attacks later in life
Anxiety - centers on amygdala –> fears are accentuated and more plentiful with response to stress.
Addiction - impairment of the frontal cortex lowers individuals’ reasoning abilities –> impairs judgement –> increases likelihood of inappropriate coping mechanisms
Coping with Stress
Positive measures to take: perceived control, optimism, social support
Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman testing the notion that stress is associated with increased vulnerability to ___ disease found…
Heart disease
Found that easily angered individuals were more likely to experience a heart attack later in life
Robert Sapolsky
Studies baboons with social hierarchies similar to humans’. Found that primates at the bottom of the pyramid were more likely to experience stress. Similar results to the White-Hall study that examined effect of rank in the workplace on stress.
Coping
Expending a conscious effort to solve personal and interpersonal problems, and seeking to master, minimize, or tolerate stress/conflict. Does not include natural, automatic responses like defense mechanisms
Strategies to manage stress
Exercise (requires control), meditation, religion, cognitive flexibility, coping
Adaptive coping mechanisms
AKA positive/constructive.
Examples: proactive coping (anticipation allows the person to prepare for stress and how they are going to handle it), social coping, meaning-focused coping, self-care/hygiene, humor, relaxation
Maladaptive coping mechanisms
AKA negative/non-coping techniques.
Simply reduces the symptoms of stress while maintaining and strengthening the disorder. Examples: dissociation, sensitization, safety behaviors, anxious avoidance, and escape (including self-medication)
Dissociation
The ability of the mind to separate and compartmentalize thoughts, memories, and emotions. Often a part of PTSD
Sensitization
When a person seeks to learn about, rehearse, and/or anticipate fearful events in a protective effort to prevent these events from occurring in the first place
Anxious avoidance
When a person avoids anxiety-provoking situations by all means. Most common
Overcompensation forms of Maladaptive coping
Aggression and hostility directed towards others.
Dominance, excessive self-assertion to exercise control
Recognition-seeking, status-seeking - trying to receive attention and awards
Manipulation, exploitation - meets own needs through covert manipulation, seduction, dishonesty
Passive-aggressiveness, rebellion
Excessive orderliness, obsessionality
Surrender forms of maladaptive coping
Compliance, dependence: relies on others, gives in, seeks affiliation, passive, dependent, submissive, clinging, avoids conflict, people-pleasing
Avoidance forms of maladaptive coping
Social withdrawal, excessive autonomy: copes through social isolation, disconnection, and withdrawal.
Compulsive stimulation-seeking: seeks excitement or distraction through compulsive shopping, sex, gambling, risk-taking, physical activity, etc.
Addictive self-soothing: avoids via addictions like alcohol, drugs, overeating, excessive masturbation, etc.
Psychological withdrawal: Copes through dissociation, numbness, denial, fantasy, or other forms of psychological escape
Low-effort syndrome or low-effort coping
Refers to the coping responses of minority groups in an attempt to fit into the dominant culture. Ex: minority students at school putting in minimal effort to cope because they declaratively feel they are being dominated by the majority culture
