Psych/Soc Flashcards
Convergence and the muscles of the eye
Gives humans an idea of depth based on how much the eyeballs are turned. Object far away –> muscles of eye relax. Object close –> muscles of eye contract
Binocular Cues
Gives humans a sense of depth. Due to humans’ two eyeballs. Includes retinal disparity
Monocular Cues
Visual cues for which humans do not need two eyes. Gives humans senses of form and motion of an object
Interposition
Perception that one object is in front of another. An object that is in the front is closer
Relative height (vision)
Things higher are perceived to be farther away than those that are lower
Shading and Contour
Using light and shadows to perceive form
Motion parallax
“Relative motion” - Things farther away move slower, closer moves faster
Monocular Cue of Constancy
When human’s perception of an object does not change even though the image cast on the retina does. Ex: a door opening changes shape but the mind still thinks its a door
Color constancy
Perception does not change even when lighting changes causing the color falling on the retina to change
Sensory adaptation
Humans’ senses changing their sensitivity to certain stimuli
Proprioception
The sense of the position of the body in space, i.e. “sense of balance or where you are in space”
Up/Down regulation of sight
Downregulation: light adaptation, pupils constrict, rods and cones become desensitized to light. Upregulation: dark adaptation, pupils dilate, rods and cones make light-sensitive molecules
Weber’s Law
Shows that the ratio between the weight of an object and the just noticeable difference (JND) in weight of that object is constant.
JND / (initial intensity) = k (constant)
Absolute Threshold of Sensation
Minimum intensity of a stimulus needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time
Subliminal Stimuli
Stimuli below the absolute threshold of sensation
Types of Somatosensation
Thermoception (temp.), mechanoception (pressure), nociception (pain), and proprioception (position)
Non-adapting neuron
Fires at constant rate
Slow-adapting neuron
Fires in the beginning of stimulus but slows down after a while
Fast-adapting neuron
Fires as soon as stimulus starts, then stops firing even while stimulus is still active. It starts firing again when stim ceases
Vestibular Sensation
Sense of balance and spatial orientation. Depends on inner ear and limbs, with emphasis on inner ear
Semicircular canals of inner ear
Posterior, lateral, and interior (each perpendicular to each other). Filled with endolymph fluid
Endolymph
Fluid in the inner ear canals that moves when the head rotates. Speed of fluid movement allows perception of strength of head rotation.
Otolithic organs
Utricle and Saccule - parts of the vestibular system in inner ear. Help detect linear acceleration and head positioning. CaCO3 crystals within the otolithic organs tug on hair cells, triggering action potentials.
Action of vestibular system in dizziness
Endolymph continues spinning even after person has stopped
Signal Detection Theory
Examines how we make decisions under conditions of uncertainty - discerning between important stimuli and unimportant “noise”
Bottom-Up Processing
Starts with stimulus and perception is built off data presented at that moment. “Inductive reasoning.” Always correct
Top-Down Processing
Brain constructs perception based on past experiences and expectations. Deductive reasoning. Not always correct.
Gestalt Principles / Gestalt’s Laws of Grouping
Attempts to explain how we perceive visual stimuli the way we do: our minds look at “whole” images/situations rather than just singular pieces. Our brain fills in gaps to see the entire image for what it really is
Gestalt Principle: Similarity
The brain groups similar items together
Gestalt Principle: Pragnanz
The brain reduces shapes into the simplest form possible in perception
Gestalt Principle: Proximity
Closely spaced objects are grouped together rather than things farther apart
Gestalt Principle: Continuity
Lines are seen as following the smoothest path
Gestalt Principle: Closure
Objects grouped together are seen as a whole, and mind fills in missing information.
Gestalt Principle: Symmetry
The mind perceives objects as being symmetrical and forming around a center point
Gestalt Principle: Law of Common Fate
If there is an array of dots in which half the dots are moving up and the other half are moving down, we perceive the upward and downward moving dots as two distinct units
Gestalt Principle: Law of Past Experiences
Under certain circumstances, visual stimuli are categorized according to past experiences. Ex. Interpretting letters to form words rather than applying other Gestalt Principles to see them as other shapes
Gestalt Principle: Contextual Effects
Context of stimuli contributes to the perception and organization of each stimulus
Conjuctiva
Thin layer of cells that lines inside of eyelids from the eye
Cornea
First part of the eye that light hits, starts to bend the light. Clear, thick layer of fibrous tissue. Anterior 1/6th.
Anterior chamber (of eye)
Space filled with aqueous humor that provides pressure to maintain shape of eyeball. Allows nutrients and minerals to supply cells of cornea and iris.
Pupil
Opening of the middle of the iris. Controls the amount of light entering the eye. Size changes based on the iris relaxing/constricting (gets bigger/smaller, respectively).
Iris
The muscle that constricts/relaxes to change size of the pupil. Also gives the eye color.
Lens
Bends light to focus it specifically on the fovea of the retina. Changes shape using the suspensory ligaments to adjust how much the light is bent.
Suspensory Ligaments
Attaches lens to ciliary muscles to allow for shape-change of the lens.
Ciliary Body
Ciliary muscles and suspensory ligaments. The complex that secretes the aqueous humor.
Posterior chamber (of eye)
Space between the back of the iris to the back of the lens; also filled with aqueous humor
Vitreous Humor
Fills the Vitreous Chamber. Jelly-like substance to provide pressure to eyeball and gives nutrients to inside of eyeball
Retina
Inside back area of eyeball filled with photoreceptors. Converts light from physical waveform to an electrochemical impulse for brain to interpret.
Macula
Select area of the retina that is rich in cones (there are also some rods present)
Fovea
Special part of the macula where there are only cones (NO rods). No bundles of axons are present, so light can hit cones directly. Area of maximal light delivery to cones.
Cones
Detect color and discern high level of detail in what is being observed. Cone-shaped. 3 types: red, gree, blue
Rods
Detect light. Rod-shaped
Chloroid
A network of blood vessels that helps nourish retina. Pigmented black in humans, so all light is absorbed.
Animals with different colord Chloroid than humans.
Gives them better night vision than humans (whose chloroid is black)
Sclera
The whites of the eye. Thick, fibrous tissue. Attachment point for muscles, provides protection and structure to eyeball. Lined with conjuctiva.
Transmission (neurons)
Electrical activation of one neuron by another
Perception
Conscious sensory experience of neural processing
Processing (in terms of visual sensory information)
Refers to neural transformation of multiple neural signals into a perception
Transduction (concerning visual sensory info)
Energy transformation from light to electrical energy by rods and cones (photoreceptors)
What is light?
An electromagnetic wave. In the middle of the Electromagnetic Spectrum
Electromagnetic (EM) Spectrum
Contains every wavelength. Longest to shortest: (AM/FM, microwave (food), infrared, visible light [ROYGBIV], UV, XRay, gamma)
Phototransduction Cascade (PTC)
Makes brain realize presence of light passing through eyeball. See notes for detailed description. Simply: Light hits rod (turns it off) –> turns ON bipolar cell –> turns ON ganglion cell –> optic nerve –> BRAIN
Rhodopsin and Photopsin
Proteins on optic disks of rods and cones, respectively.
Optic Disks
Large, membrane-bound structures inside rods and cones. Proteins in the membranes fire action potentials to the brain
Photoreceptor
Specialized nerve cells that can take light and convert it to a neural impulse. Rods and cones. Eye has 20x more rods than cones
Recovery time of rods vs cones
Rods = slow; Cones = fast. It takes a while to adjust to the dark because rods need to be reactivated. Cones adapt quickly because they fire more frequently
Blind Spot on Retina
Where optic nerve attaches to retina. No rods or cones present
Visual Field Processing
How the brain makes sense of what is seen.
Optic Chiasm
Point of convergence of the optic nerves from each eye. Axons from nasal sides of each eye cross sides after chiasm. Axons from temporal sides do NOT cross.
Feature Detection
The process of identifying the color, form, and motion of an object
Trichromatic Theory of Color Vision
Three types of cones: Red (60&), green (30%), and blue (10%)
Parvocellular pathway
Identifies spatial resolution and color to determine boundaries and shape of an object in high detail. Cannot detect motion - only stationary. Cones are responsible for it
Magnocellular pathway
Has high temporal resolution (encodes motion), but low spatial resolution (no color). Rods are responsible
Parallel processing
Detect/focus all visual processing information (color, form, motion) at the same time
Audition and its requirements
Sense of sound. To hear sound, there must be a pressurized sound wave and a hair cell (a receptor, located in cochlea)
Effect of Wavelength on Cochlear Penetration
Longer wavelength (lower frequency) penetrates deeper into cochlea and travels farther
Why can we hear multiple sounds at once and break them up?
Different sounds have different frequencies, so the depth of penetration along the cochlea is different.
Path of Sounds Waves
- Pinna
- Auditory canal (AKA external auditory meatus)
- Tympanic membrane (eardrum)
- Vibration of ossicles (malleus, incus, then stapes)
- Vibration of oval window (elliptical window)
- Fluid movement in/around cochlea
- Fluid gets pushed out of round window
- Hair cells in cochlea are moved by the fluid and send electrical impulses to brain via auditory nerve
- Impulses continue until fluid around the cochlea stops moving
Ossicles
Malleus, incus, stapes (think MAS). The 3 smallest bones in the body. Vibrate due to sound conduction by the eardrum. Stapes vibrates the oval window
Pinna
Outer part of ear
Organ of Corti
Divides cochlea in 2. Includes basilar membrane and tectorial membrane. Prevents backflow of fluid through oval window from cochlea. Redirects fluid out through round window.
Place Theory
Perception of sound depends on where each component frequency produces vibrations along the basilar membrane. Different frequencies cause vibrations in different locations
External/Outer Ear
Pinna and eardrum
Middle Ear
Malleus to incus to stapes (ossicles)
Inner Ear
Cochlea and semicircular canals
Upper membrane of Organ of Corti and process of signaling AP
Bundle of hair cells made of little filaments (kinocilium). Each kinocilium is connected by a tip link attached to a K+ channel. Endolymph pushing on the tip link causes stretching, allowing K+ to flow inside from the endolymph. Ca2+ is activated when K+ gets inside –> AP –> activates spiral ganglion cell –> auditory nerve stimulation
Main function of Cochlea
Differentiation between sounds
Auditory Processing
How the brain interprets different reactions of the cochlea to stimuli.
Basilar Tuning
Hair cells at the beginning (base) of the cochlea are activated by high frequencies. Hair cells in the middle of the cochlea (apex) are activated by lower frequency sounds (think longer wavelength = longer travel)
Brain location of Primary Auditory Cortex
Temporal Lobe
Tonotopical Mapping
Projection of APs due to different frequency onto different parts of the primary auditory cortex
Cochlear Implants
Restores some degree of hearing to individuals with sensorineural hearing loss. Sound -> microphone/speech processor -> transmitter -> receiver -> stimulator -> cochlea (converts electrical impulse into neural impulse to go to brain)
Sensory Adaptation
Change over time of receptor’s response to a constant stimulus. Downregulation of a sensory receptor in the body
Importance of Down-Regulation of Sensory Receptor
Prevents cell from getting overexcited by pain signal. Too much pain signal (capsaicin) in a pain receptor can cause a cell to die
Amplification (regarding sensation)
Upregulation of sensory receptor’s response. Number of action potentials traveling towards the brain increases exponentially with each neuron.
Somatosensory Homunculus
“Sensory strip” in the sensory cortex in the parietal lobe. Signals from different parts of the body go to different parts of the strip.
Somatosensory Homunculus
Map of your body in the brain.
Proprioception
Sense of balance/position. Cognitive (ie not always thinking about it)
Spindle (proprioception)
Tiny receptor/sensor in the muscles that sends signals to the spinal cord and brain. Attached to the muscles so the brain knows how contracted or relaxed they are
Kinaesthesia
Sense of the movement in the body in space. Similar to proprioception but different in that this is behavioral rather than cognitive
Nociception
Ability to sense pain. SLOW
Thermoception
Ability to sense temperature. SLOW
Thermoception receptor (also senses pain) and mechanism
TrypV1 receptor. Heat induces a conformational change in the receptor protein which “pokes the cell”. When cells are poked, thousands are broken up and release different molecules that bind to TrypV1 receptors, triggering another conformational change.
3 types of nerve fibres and their relative sizes and speeds
A-beta (fastest), A-delta (middle speed), C (slowest)
A-beta fibres
Thick and myelinated nerve fibres. Large radius means low resistance and high conductance
A-delta fibres
Smaller diameter than A-beta. Less myelin = lower conductance
C fibres
Unmyelinated. Smaller diameter means higher resistance and lowest conductance. Responsible for lingering sense of pain
TrypV1 Mechanism for sensing pain
Capsaicin binds to TrypV1 receptor (located throughout the PNS) and triggers conformational change in receptor, sending APs to the brain.
Gate Control Theory of Olfaction
Theory of the processes of nociception. States that non-painful input closes the “gates” to the painful input, which prevents pain sensation from traveling to the CNS
Pheromones
Molecules released by one member of a species that trigger an innate response in another member.
Accessory olfactory epithelium
Specialized part of olfactory epithelium. Sends projections to the accessory olfactory bulb which then sends signals to the brain
Vomeronasal System
Within the accessory olfactory epithelium. Has basal and apical cells with receptors. Basal cells send axons through acc. olfactory bulb-> glomerulus -> mitral/tufted cell of amygdala
Amygdala (location and function)
Located in temporal lobe. Inolved with emotion, aggression, mating, memory, decision making, and emotional reactions
Olfaction
Sense of smell
Olfactory Epithelium
Area of sensory cells in the nostril. Thousands of types of olfactory epithelial cells, each with a different receptor.
Cribriform Plate
Separates the olfactory epithelium from the brain. It is a bone with little holes that allow olfactory sensations to be projected to the brain
Olfactory bulb
A bundle of nerves that sends projections from the cribriform plate and olfactory epithelium. Located just above the cribriform plate closer to the brain.
Glomerulus
Olfactory bulb that “catches” all of the action potentials fired by olfactory sensory cells that are all sensitive to the same molecule. (ex: a benzene glomerulus). Glomerulus synapses onto mitral/tufted cell
Mitral/tufted cell
Postsynaptic cell of gomerulus/olfactory bulb. Projects olfactory signal to the brain
GPCR olfacotry pathway
Scent molecule binds to a GPCR on an “odor molecule.” Activates GPCR on olfactory epithelia. GP dissociates and triggers cascade inside the cell. GP binds to an ion channel that allows outside cells to enter this one. Open cell triggers an AP (which travels to cribriform plate, then glomerulus, then mitral/tufted cell, then brain).
Ipsilateral and Contralateral Senses
Ipsilateral: Olfaction and gustation - because they do not synapse onto the thalamus. Contralateral: Vision, hearing, touch
Labeled-line Theory of Olfaction
Each receptor would respond to specific stimuli and is directly linked to the brain
Vibrational Theory of Olfaction
Vibrational frequency of a molecule gives that molecule its specific odor profile
Steric/Shape Theory of Olfaction
Odors fit into receptors similar to lock and key
Anosmia
Inability to perceive odor
Olfactory Pathway in the Brain
Signal is transmitted from olfactory bulb to amygdla and piriform cortex. Then is transmitted to orbitofrontal cortex
Gustation
Sense of taste
5 Main Tastes
Bitter, salty, sweet, sour, and umami (ability to taste glutamate)
Papillae
Structures that contain taste buds and their taste receptors
Location and distribution of taste buds
Can be fungiform (anterior), foliate (side), and circumvallate (back). Concentrated at front of the tongue
Fungiform papillae
Mushroom-shaped structures located on tip and side of tongue that contain taste-buds
Foliate papillae
Folded strucutres at the back of the tongue on both sides. Contain taste buds
Circumvallate papillae
Flat mound structures found at the back of the tongue an contain taste buds
Filiform papillae
DO NOT contain taste buds and are found all over the tongue. Exclusive form of papillae at the center of the tongue
Tastant
A substance that stimulates sense of taste
Gustucin
A protein associated with the sense of taste
Chorda Tympani
Nerve part of the 7th cranial nerve that carries signals from the front 2/3 of the tongue
9th and 10th cranial nerves
Glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves. Carry signals from the rear 1/3 of the tongue
Labeled-lines Model of Gustation
Each taste bud has 5 axons that all send separate information to the different parts of the gustatory cortex. All synapse at different locations
GPCR-dependent tastes
Sweet, umami, and bitter cells rely on GPCRs
Ion channel-dependent
Sour and salty. Ex: NaCl binds directly to a receptor and causes ion channel to open –> positive ions flow in –> depolarization –> AP
Ion-channel response to sour taste
Sour tastants bind to receptors that react with H+. Binding of H+ receptor causes K+ channels to close
First locaiton of taste/smell signals in the brain
Orbitofrontal cortex (NOT the thalamus)
Consciousness
Awareness of one’s self and environment. Varying levels of consciousness
States of Consciousness
Alertness, daydreaming, drowsiness, sleep
Electroencephalograms (EEGs)
Measure brainwaves (beta, alpha, delta, theta), which differ in frequency with each state of consciousness
Beta brainwaves
12-130 Hz. Associated with awake/concentration. One being awake and alert for too long can cause high beta levels and increased stress, anxiety and restlessness
Alpha brainwaves
8-13 Hz. Daydreaming state. Disappear in drowsiness but reappear in deep sleep.
Theta brainwaves
407 Hz. Appear in drowsiness and very early/light sleep. Slower/lower frequency than alpha waves
Delta brain waves
0.5 - 3 Hz. Long and low frequency. Active in deep sleep or coma
Brainwaves
Neural rhythms that can be measured by EEGs
Sleep stages - what are they and the 4 main ones?
Distinct patterns during sleep. 4 main stages: N1, N2, N3, REM. Cycle through all four in 90 min
N1 Stage of sleep
Stage 1. Dominated by theta waves. Experience strange sensations: hypnagonic hallucinations, Tetris effect, and/or hypnic jerks
N2 Stage of sleep
Stage 2. People are difficult to awaken. More theta waves than N1, also see sleep spindles and K-complexes
Sleep spindles
Rapid bursts of brain actiivty. May help inhibit certain perceptions so we maintain a tranquil state during sleep (like sleeping through loud noises). In N2 stage.
K-complexes
Suppress cortical arousal and keep one asleep. Aid in sleep-based memory consolidation (transfer of some mem to long-term mem), especially declarative/explicit memories. Ex: sleeping through a gentle touch
N3 Stage of sleep
Slow-wave sleep. Very difficult to awaken. Lots of delta waves. Sleep walking/talking occurs in this phase. Declarative memory consolidation occurs. Regular breathing and regular slow brain waves
REM stage
Eyes move rapidly beneath your eyelids. Most other muscles are paralyzed. Decreased prefrontal cortex activity. Stage when most dreaming occurs - paralyzation inhibits physical actions. Most important stage for memory consolidation. Forms episodic memories. Combination of alpha, beta, and dyssynchronous waves (similar to beta waves).
Paradoxical sleep
Another name for REM sleep
Circadian Rhythms
Regular body rhythms across 24-hour period. Control body temp and sleep cycle. Queued by daylight (or even artificial light). Changes as you age. Controlled by melatonin
Melatonin
Hormone produced in the pineal gland. Controls Circadian Rhythms
When must one awaken to remember their dreams?
During REM sleep
Freud’s Dream Theory
reams are unconscious feelings, thoughts, and desires that need to be interpreted
Evolutionary biology theory fo dreams
Threat simulation in preparation for the real world. Also could be simulation of problem-solving
Manifest content (Freud Dream Theory)
Literal meaning of one’s dream
Latent content (Freud’s Dream Theory)
Hidden meaning behind one’s dream
Activation Synthesis Hypothesis (Dreams Theory)
Brain is trying to find meaning from random brain activity (therefore, dreams likely have no meaning).
Effects of sleep deprivation
Irritability, poorer memory and attention, increased rates of motor vehicle accidents, increased risk of depression, more susceptible to obesity because body makes more cortisol and hunger hormone (ghrelin)
Insomnia and possible treatments
Persistent trouble falling or staying asleep. Treatments involve psychological training and lifestyle changes
Narcolepsy
Inability to prevent oneself from falling into a sleeping fit (each usually last about 5 minutes, occur randomly)
Sleep apnea
Stop breathing while sleeping, body realizes its not getting enough air, wakes up just long enough to gasp for air, then fall back asleep without even realizing (can happen 100X per night). Don’t get enough N3 sleep (makes people tired even after a full night of sleep).
Induced State of Consciouness
Examples include hypnosis and medication
Hypnotism
Person becomes more susceptible to suggestion in this state - but only if they want to. More alpha waves in this state.
False Memories
Memories that incorporate hypnotizer’s expectations even when not intended. Possible consequence of hypnosis used for memory retrieval, which is very dangerous because memories are malleable
Dissociation Theory of hyptnosis
Hypnotism is an extreme form of divided consciousness
Social Influence Theory of hypnosis
People do and report what is expected of them, like actors caught up in their roles
Meditation
Training people to self-regulate their attention and awareness. Can be guided and focused on something in particular or can be unfocused, like letting the mind wander
Psychoactive Drugs
Alter consciousness, perceptions, mood, calm us down, make us feel more alert. Classified by action and effect on the body
Four main categories of psychoactive drugs
Depressants, stimulants, hallucinogens, opiates/opioids
Depressants
Lower the body’s basic functions and nueral activity, lower CNS activity. Vasodilator is low, vasoconstricotor is high.
Alcohol
A depressant. Decreases inhibitions –> decreases cognitive control. Lack of coordination, slurred speech, disrupts REM sleep and memory formation
Barbiturates
Depressants used to induce sleep or reduce anxiety. Depresses CNS.
Anticonvulsants
Depressant drugs that reduce seizures, specifically under the umbrella of barbiturates
Benzodiazepines
More commonly prescribed. depressants used to treat the same conditions as barbiturates. Act by enhancing the brain’s response to GABA -> open up GABA-activates Cl channels in the brain.
3 Types of Benzodiazepines
Short, intermediate, and long-acting. Short and intermediates are used for sleep. Long is used for anxiety
Stimulants (description and examples)
Excite the CNS, increase HR/BP, alertness, vasoconstriction. Ex: caffeine, amphetamines (adderall), methamphetamines, MDMA (Molly/Ecstasy), Cocaine, Nicotine, THC
The effects of which psychoactive drugs are similar to stress?
Stimulants
Cocaine
Stimulant. Blocks dopamine reuptake
Amphetamines
Stimulants. Blocks dopamine reuptake and stimulates presynaptic dopamine release
Caffeine
Stimulant. Inhibits the enzyme that breaks down cAMP (cAMP normally leads to the decrease of HR)
Nicotine
Stimulant. Enhances ACh release.
THC
Stimulant, hallucinogen, and depressant. Works on anandamide, increases dopamine and GABA activity.
Hallucinogens/Psychedelics
Cause distorted perceptions/hallucinations, may cause heightened sensations. Affects energy levels, emotions, personality, dilation of pupils. Ex: mescaline, peyote, PCP, LSD, psilocybin
LSD
Hallucinogen that modifies serotonin NT be affecting the 5-HT2 receptor family.
Myadrisis
Dilation of pupil
Opioids vs Opiates
Opiates are natural whereas opioids are synthetic
Opiates/Opioids
Like depressants - decrease CNS function, HR/BP, and up relaxation/induce sleep. Analgesic effect by acting endorphin receptors. Vasodilator and constrict pupils.
Death by opiates/opioids
Respiratory failure
MDMA
Can be a stimulant or hallucinogen
Psychoactive drug used from PTSD treatment
Hallucinogens. Allow people to access painful memories, but detached from strong emotions. Helps people come to terms with it
NTs of Reward Pathways in the Brain
Dopamine levels go up (produced in Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA) in midbrain). Serotonin levels go down (preventing one from feeling satiated or content)
Nucleus Accumbens
Controls motor functions
Prefrontal cortex
Focuses attention and planning
Hippocampus (location and function)
In temporal lobe. Involved in memory formation
Tolerance
A shift in the dose-response curve that causes decreased sensitivity ot a drug due to exposure. ie One gets used to a drug so they need more of it to achieve the same feeling/effect.
Cross tolerance
Reduction in the efficacy or responsiveness to a novel drug due to a common CNS target
Withdrawal Symptoms
Occur after prolonged use. Sign of addiction. May be acute or post-acute. Can cause illness and even death.
Acute withdrawal
Within a few weeks of use. Mainly physical symptoms. Different for each person
Post-acute withdrawal
Usually lasts about 2 years. Roller-coaster of good stretches and bad stretches, varying in length. Fewer physical symptoms and more mental/psychological. Same symptoms for everyone: mood swings, anxiety, irritability, tiredness, varaible energy, low enthusiasm, variable concentration, disturbed sleep.
Substance-induced disorders
Conditions that are caused by a substance. Can be mood-related (high mood - mania, low mood - depression) or related to anxiety, sleep, sexual function, psychosis (loss of contact with reality)
Methadone
Activates opiate receptors, but acts slower than heroine and the lik, so it dampens the high. Reduces cravings, eases withdrawal, and if heroine is taken, the user cannot experience the same high because receptors are already full of longer-acting methadone
Cognitive behavioral therapy
Psychological treatment for drug disorders that addresses both behavioral and cognitive components of addiction. Patients must learn to develop more positive thought patterns and coping behaviors, learn to anticipate problematic situations and to self-monitor for cravings so they can apply their coping stategies. Long-lasting
Selective attention
The ability to maintain attention while being presented with masking or interfering stimuli. Instead of division of one’s focusing abilities, one task is being selected between the two (or more) at hand.
Exogenous Cues
AKA External cues: obvious, attention-grabbing stimuli in the environment. Exogenous attention is driven by botton-up or external events. Ex: loud noises
Endogenous cues
AKA Internal cues: Require internal knowledge to understand the cue and the intention to follow it. Endogenous attention is dirven by top-down or internal events. Ex: a mouse arrown on a computer drawing one’s attention
Perceptual blindness
AKA In-attentional blindness: the inability to recognize and unexpected object, event, or other stimulus that is in plain sight. Due to a psychological lapse in attention rather than a defect in sensory perception. “Missing something that is right in front of you”
Change blindness
Fail to notice changes from a previous to current state in environment. Ex: not noticing your mom gets a haircut
Distal vs Proximal Stimuli
Distal are the objects and events out in the world about you. Aware of and respond to this because this is what is important.
Proximal stimul: the patterns of stimul from distal stimuli that actually reach your senses. i.e. it is the actual light falling on the retina
Covert orienting
The act of bringing the spotlight of attention on an object or event WITHOUT body or eye movement
Overt Orienting
A person moving all/part of their body to alter or maximize the senory impact of a stimulus
Attentional capture
Occurs when attention is attracted by the motion of an object
Neglect Syndrome
Occurs when damage to the brain causes a change or loss in the capacity of the spatial dimension of divided attention
NT that modulates attentional network and its place of production
Norepinephrine produced in the locus ceruleus
NT that modulates the network responsible for changing focus from one stimulus to another
Acetylcholine produced in the basal forebrain
Basal forebrain
Collection of strucutres located to the front of and below the striatum. Includes the nucleus accumbens, nucleus basalis, and medial septal nuclei. Important the production of ACh for the entire CNS
Executive attention and the NT (and place of production) that is responsible for it
Involved in goal-directed behavior, monitoring conflicts between internal processes, and anticipating effects of behavior. Dopamine from the ventral tagmental area is associated with executing attention
Shadowing task
Experiment that studies selective attention. Two different stimuli are played into the right and left ears through headphones. then subject is asked to repeat everything said into one ear and ignore the other.
Broadbent’s Early Selection Theory
Theory of selective attention that supports idea that all environmental info goes into sensory register, and then gets transferred to selective filter right away, which identifies what you are supposed to be attending to via basic physical characteristics and filters out stuff in unattended ear based on things you don’t need to understand. Finally moves info to perceptual processes where friends’ voices are identified, meaning assigned to words, and ultimately allows one to engage in other cognitive processes like deciding how to respond.
Basically:
sensory register -> selective filter -> perceptual process -> conscious
Deutch and Deutch’s Late Selection Theory
Places broadband selective filter after perceptual processes, meaning that everythat that comes into one’s sensory register is assigned meaning and then selectively filtered to determine what goes on to conscious awareness.
sensory register -> perceptual process -> selective filter -> conscious
think: “the Detsch (German) pay attention to everything!!” and makes sense bc Germans are intense
Treisman’s Attenuation Theory
Instead of selective filter, we have attenuators that weaken but does not eliminate input from unattended “ear.” Then some stimuli get to perceptual processes, but are assigned low importance if from unattended ear.
sensory register -> attenuator -> perceptual process - conscious
think: Treismans is SHARP as a T. He is smar enough to only attenuate and then perceive
Johnson’s and Heinz’s proposal on selective attention
The location of the info attenuator was able to be varies by the listener depending on the demand necessitated by a particular attention task
Spotlight Model of Attention
Selective attention - takes info from all 5 sense but doesn’t pay attention to everything. Aware on an unconscious level - ex: priming
Priming
Exposure to one stimulus affects response to another stimulus, even if we haven’t been consciously paying attention to it. Ex: we’re primed to respond to our name - why it’s a strong prim for pulling our attention
Resource model of attention
We have limited resources in attention. Resources that are easily overtasked if we try to pay attention to multiple things at once. ie not good at multitasking
Factors that influcence one’s ability to mutlitask
Task similarity: like listening to music while writing a paper - best to listen to classical music because it is harder to multitask with similar tasks
Task difficulty: harder tasks require more focus - ex: texting while driving is more difficult that talking to a passenger
Practice: activities well-practiced become automatic processes or things that occur without need for attention. Whether task is automatic vs controlled is determine by the amoutn of practice
Infomration processing model
Proposes that brains are similar to computers in that we get input from environment, process it, and then output decisions. Bottom-up/stimulus-driven theory. Assumes limited storage and attention capacities. Also assumes serial processes (when the brain is actually capable of parallel processing)
Iconic memory
What you see. Lasts for half a second in the sensory register
Echoic memory
What you hear. Lasts for 3-4 seconds in sensory register
Partial report technique
Report one part of a whole field in cued recall
Working memory and capacity
AKA Short-term memory: the sensory info one actually processes, or the memory that is stored while it is held in attention. Consiste of what you are thinking about at a moment. Capacity: 7 +/- 2 pieces of info at a time, although this varies based on how complicated the stimuli are.
Serial position effect
Primacy and recency effects
Viso-spatial sketchpad
Visual and spatial info are porcessed in this
Phonological loop
Where verbal info from iconic and echoic memory is processed. Ex: repeating a phone number to yourself.
Store-capacity is about 2 seconds
Central executive
Coordinates visual and verbal info from visuo-spatial sketchpad and phonological loop. Supervises the cognitive process of memory. Creates an integrated representation and stores it in the episodic buffer
Episodic buffer
Storage place of the representations that are concocted by the central executrive
Dual Coding Hypothesis
It’s easier to remember words associated with images than either one alone.
Method of Loci
Linking info to locations. Tie information you need to remember to certain stopsalong a route that you already know. A type of mnemonic
Operational Span Testing
A test in which subjects are asked to perform a simple mathematical verification and then read a word, with a recall test follwing some number of those verify/read pairs. The max number of words that can be recalled is the operation span.
Categories of long-term memroy and capacity
Unlimited capacity. The two catagories are explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declarative)
Explicit memory and its subsections
Declarative facts/events one can explicitly (clearly) describe. Expliciti memory is a type of long term memory that focuses on recalling previous experiences and info. Can be divided into episodic (event-related) and semantic (simple facts)
Implicit Memories/Non-declarative
Involve things you may not articulate / procedural memories. Includes previous experiences that aid in the performance of a task without conscious awareness of these previous experiences. Formed unconsciously. Includes all memories formed by conditioning, habits,
Storage area of habits/implicit memories in the brain
Basal ganglia
Negative priming
An implicit memory effect in which prior exposure to a stimulus unfavorably influences the response to the same stimulus. Caused by experiencing the stimulus and then ignoring it. Lowers the speed of response to slower than un-primed levels
Positive priming
Speeds up processing, caused by simply experiencing the stimulus. Thought to be caused by spreading activation, meaning that the first stimulus activates parts of a particular representation or association in memory just before carrying out an action or task. The representation is already partially activated when the second stimulus is encountered, so less additional activation is needed for one to become consciously aware of it.
Autobiographical memory
Memory consisting of episodes recollected from an individual’s life, based on a combination of episodic and semantic memories
Encoding memory
Transferring information from the temporary store in working memory into the permanent store in long-term memory. More successful when more cognitive effor is actively used, especially when using a combination of encoding strategies
Encoding specificity
Enhanced memory when testing takes place under the same conditions as learning
Rote rehearsal
Saying the same thing over and over. Least effective encoding strategy.
Chunking
Grouping info we receive into meaningful categories we already know to ease memorization
Mnemonic devices
Link info that you are trying to learn into previously existing long-term information that is already in your memory. Types: imagery (the crazier the better), Pegword system (verbal anchors that link workd that rhyme with the number), Method of Loci, Acronym
Self-referencing
Think about new info and how it relates to you personally. Ex: imagine learning something about history, you then learn the info by talking to the general
Preparing the teach
Learning strategy in which one pretends to be learning in order to be able to tach the info to someone else later. More likely to put effort into organization and understanding immediately
Spacing
Encoding strategy that involves spreading out study sessions over time in shorter periods rather than cramming.
Free recall
Recalling without any cues. Most difficult form of recall. Influenced by serial position effects (hardest to remember items in the middle of a list).
Cued recall
Recalling with clues/cues for aid. Easier than free recall.
Recognition
Easiest form of recall
Schema
Metal blueprint containing comon aspects of world. Basis for information we retrieve
Source amnesia
The inability to remember where, when or how previously learned info has been acquired, while retaining factual knowledge
Flashbulb memories
Highly emotional memories that are extrememly vivid. May seem as though they are remembered as real life, they are susceptible to reconstruction
Long-Term Potentiation
Connections of neurons strengthen with use of that given pathway. An example of synaptic plasticity. With repeated stimulation, the same pre-synaptic neuron stimulation converts into greater/stronger post-synaptic neuron potential –> strongter synapse. This is how learning occurs.
Neural Plasticity
Changes in brain size. Involves function of envirnomental influences
Decay (regarding memory)
A reason for forgetting. Neglecting to use a pathway between cue and memory forces the pathway to become weaker, making it harder to stimulate the memory. Studied first by Ebbinghaus
Interference (regarding memory) - the two types
Retroactive interference: New learning impairs old info. Refers to new info interfering with memory of earlier information
Proactive interference: Something you learned in the past impairs learning the future. Earlier info interferes with later info
Memories that remain stable with age
Implicit/procedural and recognition memory
Memory-related cognitive function that decline with age
Episodic memories (formation declines, old memories remain stable), processing speed, divided attention, prospective memory
Prospective memory
Remembering to do something in the future
Dementia
Decline in memory and other cognitive functions to the point of interfering with daily life. Results from excessive damage to brain tissue. Most common form is Alzheimer’s
Alzheimer’s Disease
Characterized by death of neurons, cerebral cortex shrinking in size, and buildup of amyloid plaques. Patients usually retain procedural and episodic memory early on. Symptoms: short-term memoly-loss (progresses into long term), difficulty with attention, planning, semantic memory, and abstract thinking. Later progression may involve emotion instability and loss of bodily functions.
Korsakoff’s Syndrome
Severe memory-loss not caused by brain injury. Caused by lack of vitamin B1 or thiamine–>Caused by malnutrition, eating disorders, and especially alcoholism. Not progressive. Wernicke’s encephalopathy is a precursor. Can be trated with supplements and lifestyle changes.
Wernicke’s encephalopathy
Poor balance, abnormal eye movements, mild confusion, and memory loss. Precursor to Korsakoff’s syndrome.
Retrograde vs Anterograde amnesia
R: Inability to recall info previously encoded.
A: Inability to encode new memories
Retrograde vs Anterorade Amnesia
Retrograde: Inability to remember experiences before a brain injury
Anterograde: Inability to form long-term memories after a brain injury, but able to remember memories from before the accidnet
Semantic Networks
Concepts are organized in one’s mind as connected ideas. For closely related ideas, these networks are likely shorter, and then are likely longer for less closely related ideas
Hierarchical Semantic Networks
Storage of info in a hierarchical way, from higher order categories to lower order categories. We stor info at the highest category possible, broad categories/characteristics are stoed at higher level nodes.
Cognitive Economy Principle
States that the human brain is efficient. Longer distance between nodes or more nodes between stimulus and conclusion = longer time required to verify a connection
Modifed Semantic Network
Every individual semantic network develops based on experience and knowledge. Some links might be shorter/longer for different indivuals and there may be direct links for higher order categories to examplars
Spreading activaiton
All ideas in one’s brain are connected. Pulling up one memory pulls up others, as well.
Stronger nodal links (regarding memory/processing)
Correlate with decreased processing time (as does learning). Stengthening occurs via more and more exposure.
Piaget’sTheory on Children’s Cognitive Abilities
Believed that children are not miniature adults, rather that they actively construct their understanding of the world as they develop. As their bodies grow, so do their minds. Piaget placed age boundaries on the stages of cognitive development, which have not proven to be accurate for all children, but they do follow Piaget’s proposed general sequence of events ( a schema)
Paget’s Stages of Development
1) Sensorimotor stage: 0-2-year-olds gather info via the 5 senses, love peak-aboo, and have issues with object permanence and stranger anxiety
2) Preoperational stage: 2-6/7-year-olds engage in pretend play, start understanding words and symbols, and are very egocentric
3) Concrete operational stage: 7-11-year-olds learn empathy, logic, reversibility, math skills, and conversational skills
4) Formal operational stage: 12+ year olds develop understanding of abstract consequences, moral reasoning, and hypothetical situations, ultimately allowing them to solve novel problems
Schemas
Mental models/framework that we develop to organize and interpret new info. Must be dynamic through assimilation ad accommodation
Assimilation: how we describe new info/experiences in terms of our current understanding/schemas
Accommodation: how we later adjust our schemas to incorporate new experiences to remember
Trial and Error Method of Problem Solving
Taking random guesses until something works. Highly inefficient.
Algorithm Method of Problem Solving
Methodical approach. Logically taking a set step-by-step approach to reach solutions until you find the right one. Not efficient but you will eventually find the answer
Heuristics
Mental shortcuts/”rules of thumb” that allow us to find solutions quickly. Reduces the number of solutions we need to try by taking an approach as to what possibilities could exist and eliminates trying unlikely possibilities. Doesn’t guarantee a correct solution. Ex: means-ends analysis, working backwards, intuition
Means-ends analysis
Solving the biggest “sub-problem” of a large overall problem. Involves analysis and breakdown of this overall problem at hand
Working backwards
Start with a goal and use it to suggest connections back to current state. Used in mathematical proofs and mazes
Intuition
Relying on instinct. High chance of error
Fixation
Getting stuck on a wrong approach to a problem and maintaining the strategy, despite its inefficiency
Incubation Method of Problem Solving
Insight comes with time
Type I error
False positive
Type II Error
False negative
Decision making
We make a judgement of the desirability/probability of a certain outcome
Availability Heuristic
Using examples that come to mind. Helpful, but often, our most memorable experiences do not match the real state of the world. Ex: The news shows more shark attacks than fireworks accidents, so you assume that shark attacks are more fatal, but in reality, fireworks are
Representative heuristic
How well something matches a mental prototype (e.g. a woman assuming a woman dressed in scrubs is a nurse rather than a surgeon)
Ex: Linda is very outspoken and bright, majored in philosophy, and has publicly demonstrated in antinuclear organizations. When asked between the two, people that do not know Linda are more likely to say that Linda is a feminist bank teller than just a bank teller because her personality appears to fit the prototype of a feminist
Can lead to Conjunction Fallacy: the belief that a co-occurrence of two events is more likely than just one happening
Conjunction Fallacy
The belief that co-occurrence of two events is more likely than just one happening
Availability vs Representative Heuristics
Availability = actual memories in mind Representative = not thinking of exact memories, thinking of a prototype/general idea
Biases-and-Adjustment Heuristic
Requires a person to create a set point or anchor, and then the answer is adjusted based on comparing new info to the anchor
Biases
Beliefs that prevent us from making correct decisions of from changing decisions once they are made
Overconfidence bias
Ex: Going into a test without knowing a lot of info. Could be due to ease of processing during studying.
Can also be experienced when one is overconfident in an argument that is not concretely backed up
Belief perseverance bias
Ignore/rationalize disconfirming facts. Ex: During elections learned about and then ignored facts about someone you had previously decided that you liked
Confirmation bias
Actively seeking out only facts that confirm you prior beliefs
Framing effects
How you present the decision can affect decisions as well.
Ex: disease mortality described in terms of number that live vs number that die, and the course of action you choose. Most will choose the course of action that involves the mortality rate described by the number of people that survive
Semantic Networks
Concepts are organized in mind in terms of connected ideas. Parallel to how info might be stored in a computer. Links are likely shorter for closely related ideas, or longer for less-related ideas. Concepts are represented by nodes. The longer it takes us to verify the connections between nodes, the longer it takes for us to verify that link.
Not the end all-be all because there are such things as modified semantic networks (exceptions to the rules above)
Spreading activation
When one concept in a semantic pathway is activated, related concepts are pulled in as well
Spearman’s Theory of One General Intelligence
Evidence comes from the fact that people who score well on one test also tend to score well on other types of tests. Factor underlying these inconsistent abilities is called the g factor (g = general intelligence)
Theory for 3 Types of Intelligence (name and describe them)
The 3 types: analytical, creative, and practical
Analytical: academic abilities, the only type assessed by IQ test, higher=tend to do better in school
Creative: ability to adapt to new situations and generate novel ideas and adapt
Practical intelligence: ability to solve ill-defined problems like getting a bookcase up a curvy staircase
Emotional Intelligence
Perceive, understand, and manage and use emotions in interactions with others
Fluid Intelligence
One’s ability to reason quickly and abstractly, as when solving novel logic problems. “Thinking on your feet.” Helps people see patterns, organize, and identify feature and spatial relationships.
Crystallized intelligence
Refers to accumulated knowledge and verbal skills. Increases with age, whereas fluid intelligence tends to decrease with age
Alfred-Binet
First to develop an intelligence test, although was actually intending to measure a child’s mental age. Designed for French children
Lewis Terman and the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test
Terman: modified Binet’s Intelligence Test to create the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test (SBIT)
SBIT: Started being used to measure intelligence of immigrants (language barrier was a major issue)
Galton’s idea of hereditary genius
Human ability is herditary
Binet’s idea of mental age
How a child at a specific age performs intellectually compared to average intellectual performance for that physical age in years
Convergent intelligence
IQ test-related intelligence (puzzles, vocabulary words, arithmetic). Proposed by Guilford
Theories of Intelligence (acronym!!)
ST[a]G[e]S
S = Spearman (General) T = Thurnstone (Primary mental abilities) G = Gardner (Mutliple intelligence) S = Sternberg (Triarchic multiple intellignce)
Spearman’s Theory of Intelligence
General: G-factor predicts our intelligence in multiple academic areas. Limited in what is considers to be intelligence
Thurnstone’s Theory of Intelligence
Primary Mental Abilities: 7 factors of intelligence are word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial reasoning, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning, memory. Limited
Gardner’s Theory of Intelligence
Theory of Multiple Intelligence: 9 independent intelligences are logical-mathematical, verbal-linguistic, spatial-visual, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, musical, naturalist, and existential intelligence
Sternberg’s Theory of Intelligence
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence: the 3 independent intelligences are analytical, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence
Side of the brain that dominates language abilities in most people
Left (90%)
Broca’s area, Broca’s Aphasia
Area: In frontal lobe. Responsible for speaking/language processing
Aphasia: “broken speech” or even halted characterize by apraxia, a disorder of motor planning
Wernicke’s area, Wernicke’s Aphasia
Area: In temporal lobe. Responsible for understanding language.
Aphasia: Also called fluent aphasia. Word salad. People often speak grammatically correct but do not understand what they are hearing or saying
Aphasia
Disorder that involves language. Communication disorder that causes problems with speaking, listening, reading, and writing
Glocal aphasia
Both Broca’s and Wernicke’s Aphasia together. Combination of impaired comprehension and production of speech
Arcuate Fasciculus
Nerve fibers that connect Broca’s and Wenicke’s. They are present in deaf people that know sign language. Damaged in conduction/associative aphasia
Conduction aphasia
Due to damage to the arcuate fasciculus. Makes it difficult to repeat things even when they understand what is being said.
Agraphia
Inability to write
Anomia/anomic aphasia
inability to name things. Difficulties in naming objects or retrieving words
Corpus Callosum
Thick band of nerve fibers that connects the two hemispheres. Communication is disrupted when this is severed (split brain patient)
Contralateral Organization of the brain
Left visual field info gets processed by right side and vice versa
Left brain vs Right brain
Left: logical, sequential, rational, analytical, objective, looks at parts
Right: random, intuitive, holistic, synthesizing, subjective, looks at wholes
Prosody
Located on right hemisphere. Concerend with larger units of speech like syllables. Involved in intonation, tone, stress, and rhythm. May reflect various features of the speaker or the utterance (emotional star of the speaker), the form of utterance (statement, question, command), the presence of irony/sarcasm, emphasis, or other elements of language that may not be encoded by grammar or vocab
Behaviorists-Empiricists ‘ view of language
Believe language is just conditioned behavior, meaning that children aren’t born with anything and that they only acquire language through operant conditioning. Does not explain how babies can produce sentences they have never heard before
Nativists-Rationalists’ view of language
Language must be innate (children born with the ability to learn it). Associated with Noam Chomsky.
Materialists’ view of language
Look at what happened in the brain when people think/spea/write
Universalism
Thought determines language completely. Your thought dictates language
Piaget
Came up with cognitive development in children. He believed that language is influenced by cognitive development. e.g Children developing object permanence will start to develop words like “gone,” “missing”
Vygotsky
Language and thought are both independent but converge through development. Eventually learn to use them at the same time via socialization. Children develop language by socializing with adults that already know the language
Linguistic Determinism
Language has an influence on thought. They are called the Weak and Strong hypotheses, referring to how much influence they think language has on thought
Weak Linguistic Determinism (relativism)
Linguistic structure influences, but does not determine, the context of everyday encounters
Strong Linguistic Determination (Sapir-Whorfian hypothesis)
Language determines thought completely. People understand their world through language, and language thus shapes how we experience the world. Linguistic structure determines how and about what an individual thinks
Interactionist approach (to language)
Believes that biological and social factors have to interact in order for children to learn language. Children’s desire to communicate with others motivates them to learn language. Associated with Vygotsky
Critical/Sensitive Period
A point in early development that can have a significant influence on physiological or behavioral functioning in later life
Lexicon
A set of vocabulary terms. The entire set of morphemes in a language. Ex: the lexicon of ASL would be the total combination of facial expressions, hand movements, locations, and body language that can help signers form meaninful words
Lexical access
Identifying a word and connecting it to its meaning, which ahs been stored in long-term memory
Phonology
Phonetic component (actual sounds) of a language
Phonemes (def and how many in English)
The smallest unit of sound. 40 in English
Morphology
Structure of words. Many words are constructed of several morphemes (smallest significant unit of meaning of a word)
Semantics
Association of a meaning with a word. The broad meaning of each word, phrase, sentence, or text.
Syntax
How words are put together in sentences. Describes how words are arranged to create grammatically correct sentences
Pragmatics
Dependence of language on context and pre-existing knowledge. Affected by prosody (rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices)
Limbic System (def. and name structures)
Set of structures in the brain that are responsible for emotions and storage/retrieval of memories.
Structures: HAT Hippo = Hypothalamus, Amygdala, Thalamus, and Hippocampus
Amygdala
The aggression center of the brain (think “angry almond”). Stimulation fo the amygdala leads to anger/violence and fear/anxiety
Hippocampus
Major player in long-term memory formation from short-term memories. If destroyed, one suffers anterograde amnesia
Hypothalamus
Below the thalamus. Regulates the ANS: fight/flight vs rest/digest. Controls endocrine system by triggerin hormones like NE and epinephrine. Responsible for hunger, sleep, thirst, sex
The 4 F’s of the hypothalamus: fighting, fleeing, feeding, fornification (sex)
Thalamus
Sensory relay station. Everything you hear, taste, etc gets sent up to the proper area of the cortex by the thalamus. Smell is the only sense that bypasses the thalamus
Which hemisphere is more active with positive emotions?
Left
Which hemisphere is more active with negative emotions?
Right
Prefrontal cortex
Responsible for many higher-order functions: executive control, problem-solving, decision making, actions in social situations. Undergoes most development from birth.
Phineas Gage: iron rod penetrated his PFC and changed his personality
Physiological markers of emotion by sub-division of the ANS
Symp: dilated pupils, decreased salivation, increased respiration rate, increased heart rate, increased glucose release, increased adrenaline, decrease in digestion
Parasymp: pupils constrict, increased salivation, decreased respiration and heat rates, increased glucose storage, decreased adrenaline, increased digestion
The Three Components of Emotion
Physiological, cognitive, and behavioral
6 Main Universal Emotions
Found by Paul Ekman. They are happiness, sadness, fear, disgust, anger, and surprise.
All of them have consistent facial expressions across cultures and are easily recognizable
James-Lange Theory of emotion
Experience of emotion is due to perception of physiological responses.
Event –> physiological response –> interpretation of physiological response –> emotion
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
Refuted James-Lange approach because physiological response system was too slow to produce emtion that seemed to happen almost instantly, so he believed that emotion and physiological response happened simultaneously
Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion
States that physiological and cognitive responses simultaneously form experience of emotion.
Event –> physiological response and identify reason for the situation –> emotion
Lazarus Theory of Emotion
The experience of emotion depends on how the situation is cognitively labeled: if situation is labeled as “good,” then emotion is positive, and if labeled “bad,” then emotion is negative.
Labeling depends on cultural/individual differences
Event –> Cognitively label the event –> Emotion and physiological response based on the label
Yerkes-Dodson Law
People perform best when they are moderately aroused.
The relationship between long-term memory and fear follows a Yerke-Dodson curve, meaning the extreme emotional responses usually impact memory negatively, and moderate emotions are associated with optimal memory recall
Stress
Process by which humans appraise and cope with the environmental threads and challenges
Richard Lazarus
Proposed the Appraisal Theory of Stress: stress arises less from physical events but more from the assessment/interpretation of those stresses/events. There are two stages of cognitive stress: primary and secondary appraisal.
Primary determines whether the stressor is irrelevant, positive/benign, or stressful/negative
Secondary shows that individual’s ability to cope with the stressor (how to react to it)
Four major causes of stressors
- Significant life changes: new job, marriage, leaving home, death of family member
- Catastrophic events: a large scale event that everyone considers threatening, like wars, natural disasters, etc
- Daily hassles: seemingly minor events that are greatly aggravating (higher rate of these in lower SES)
- Ambient stressors: global stressors that are integrated into the environment. Hard to control. Ex: pollution, noise, etc
Sites of stress hormone synthesis/release
Adrenal medulla: produces and release catecholamines (norepinephrine/noradrenaline and epinephrine/adrenaline)
Adrenal cortex: releases cortisol (glucocorticoid, a steroid hormone, suppresses the immune system)
Which hormone is important to the “tend and befriend” response to stress?
Oxytocin moderates the stress response. It is strongly linked to estrogen, which is why this response si so much stronger in women
General Adaptation Syndrome
- Alarm phase
- Resistance
- Exhaustion
Physical effects of chronic stress
Increased BP possibly leading to vascular disease or coronary artery disease. Metabolism gets upset becuase cortisol mobilizes glucose to be released –> exacerbates conditions like DM/. Shutdown/major decrease in reproductive function. Immune function is affected: overuse of inflammatory response, increased time required to heal/fight illness
Areas of the brain most affected cortisol (ie where are the most receptors?)
Hippocampus, frontal cortex
Anhedonia
Inability to experience pleasure. Occurs often with depression. Most stressors are perceived.
Anterior cingulate
Anterior part of the frontal cortex. Stops responding to serotonin when the body is under chronic stress.
The three A’s of stress-related behavioral response
Anger - quickness to anger has been seen to correlate with heart attacks later in life
Anxiety - centers on amygdala –> fears are accentuated and more plentiful with response to stress.
Addiction - impairment of the frontal cortex lowers individuals’ reasoning abilities –> impairs judgement –> increases likelihood of inappropriate coping mechanisms
Coping with Stress
Positive measures to take: perceived control, optimism, social support
Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman testing the notion that stress is associated with increased vulnerability to ___ disease found…
Heart disease
Found that easily angered individuals were more likely to experience a heart attack later in life
Robert Sapolsky
Studies baboons with social hierarchies similar to humans’. Found that primates at the bottom of the pyramid were more likely to experience stress. Similar results to the White-Hall study that examined effect of rank in the workplace on stress.
Coping
Expending a conscious effort to solve personal and interpersonal problems, and seeking to master, minimize, or tolerate stress/conflict. Does not include natural, automatic responses like defense mechanisms
Strategies to manage stress
Exercise (requires control), meditation, religion, cognitive flexibility, coping
Adaptive coping mechanisms
AKA positive/constructive.
Examples: proactive coping (anticipation allows the person to prepare for stress and how they are going to handle it), social coping, meaning-focused coping, self-care/hygiene, humor, relaxation
Maladaptive coping mechanisms
AKA negative/non-coping techniques.
Simply reduces the symptoms of stress while maintaining and strengthening the disorder. Examples: dissociation, sensitization, safety behaviors, anxious avoidance, and escape (including self-medication)
Dissociation
The ability of the mind to separate and compartmentalize thoughts, memories, and emotions. Often a part of PTSD
Sensitization
When a person seeks to learn about, rehearse, and/or anticipate fearful events in a protective effort to prevent these events from occurring in the first place
Anxious avoidance
When a person avoids anxiety-provoking situations by all means. Most common
Overcompensation forms of Maladaptive coping
Aggression and hostility directed towards others.
Dominance, excessive self-assertion to exercise control
Recognition-seeking, status-seeking - trying to receive attention and awards
Manipulation, exploitation - meets own needs through covert manipulation, seduction, dishonesty
Passive-aggressiveness, rebellion
Excessive orderliness, obsessionality
Surrender forms of maladaptive coping
Compliance, dependence: relies on others, gives in, seeks affiliation, passive, dependent, submissive, clinging, avoids conflict, people-pleasing
Avoidance forms of maladaptive coping
Social withdrawal, excessive autonomy: copes through social isolation, disconnection, and withdrawal.
Compulsive stimulation-seeking: seeks excitement or distraction through compulsive shopping, sex, gambling, risk-taking, physical activity, etc.
Addictive self-soothing: avoids via addictions like alcohol, drugs, overeating, excessive masturbation, etc.
Psychological withdrawal: Copes through dissociation, numbness, denial, fantasy, or other forms of psychological escape
Low-effort syndrome or low-effort coping
Refers to the coping responses of minority groups in an attempt to fit into the dominant culture. Ex: minority students at school putting in minimal effort to cope because they declaratively feel they are being dominated by the majority culture
Lower motor signs
Indicate abnormalities in the LMNs
Atrophy of skletal muscle, fasciculations, hypotonia, hyporeflexia
Lower motor neurons
Efferent neurons on the PNS. Synapse onto skeletal muscles at the neuromuscular junction
Fasciculations
Involuntary twitches of skeletal muscle
Hypotonia
Decrease tone of skeletal muscle when person is relaxed
Hyporeflexia
Decreased muscle stretch reflex
5 main sense of somatosensation
Position sense, vibration, touch , pain, temperature
Sort the somatosensory receptors as fast vs slow
Slow: nociceptors, thermoreceptors
Fast: mechanoreceptors (position/touch/vibration)
Types of mechanoreceptors
Think: Man Crush Monday -> Role Play!
Meissininheiners Corpuscle, Merkel’s Disks, Ruffini Endings, Pacinian Corpuscle (and Hair Follicle Receptors)
Meissinheimer’s Corpuscle
Mechanoreceptors that are most superficial. Located in the papillary dermis of non-hairy skin.
Senses: light tough, flutter, light stretch small receptive field, grip control.
Velocity-type adaptation. Fast adapting I
Merkel Disk
Mechanoreceptor located in the papillary dermis. Requires sustained stimuli.
Senses: light touch, flutter, fine details, small receptive field
Adaptions can be through velocity or displacement. Slow adapting I
Rufini Endings
Mechanoreceptors located in the reticular dermis. Requires sustained/constant stimuli – slow adapting.
Sense: deep stretch. Has large receptive field
Pacinian Corpuscle
Mechanoreceptor located in the hypodermis. Requires constantly changing stimuli – fast adapting II. Adapts to acceleration
Senses: vibration, deep “push/poke”
Hair Follicle Receptor
Mechanoreceptor located in the reticular dermis of hairy skin. Requires constantly changing stimuli. Adapts to displacement
Sense: hair movement/light touch.
The axons of fast-adapting receptors have ______ diameters compared to those of slow-adapting. Which one has thick myelin sheath?
Larger diameters
Fast-adapting have thick myelin sheaths
Muscle stretch reflex
Causes a muscle to contract after it is stretched as a protective response.
The neurons that innervate the muscle that causes the involuntary response are excited while the muscles that would oppose this voluntary reflex are inhibited.
Structure of Sympathetic Nervous System
Interneuron in the spinal cord synapses onto the first efferent neuron. First efferent neuron is very short, so it synapses onto the second efferent neuron at the ganglia, just next to the spinal cord. Second efferent neuron stimulates the tissue of interest.
Structure of the PNS
Starts at the brainstem or bottom of the spinal cord. First efferent neuron is long and synapses onto the second efferent neuron at ganglia near target tissue. Second efferent neuron (which is short) stimulates target tissue
Grey matter
Contains most of the neuron somas. Makes up the inner core of the spinal cord and the exterior of the brain
White matter
Contains most of the myelinated axons. Covers the exterior of the spinal cord and is the predominate form in the interior of the brain
Upper motor neurons
Found in the cerebral cortex, synapse onto lower motor neurons in the brain or spinal cord.
Corticospinal tract
Motor tracts in which the UMN travels down the spinal cord on the contralateral side until they meet their LMN
Corticobuluar tract
Motor tracts in which the UMN travels to the brainstem to synapse onto the LMN
Upper motor signs
Indicate abnomatlities in the UMNs
Hyperreflexia, clonus, hypertonia, extensor plantar reflex
Hyperreflexia
Increase in the muscle stretch response because muscle spindle receptors are hypersensitive
Clonus
Rhythmic contractions of antagonist muscle. Ex: foot goes involuntarily up and down
Hypertonia
increased tone of skeletal muscle, increased muscle tension, reduced muscle stretch
Extensor Plantar Response
Toes extending up upon scraping the bottom of the foot
Somatosensory Tracts
Pain/temp/gross tracts travel up contralateral side of spinal cord
Touch/position/vibration tracts travel up ipsilateral side of spinal cord.
Parietal lobe
Somatosensory cortex (touch, pressure, pain from the skin), spatial manipulation,
Occipital lobe
Vision, “striate cortex”
Temporal lobe
Sound, “Wernick’e area”
Contralateral control
Left brain controls right body and vice cersa. Basically true for all senses except smell
Dominant Hemispheres
Left hemisphere is dominant for vast majority of people
Dominant hemisphere controls:
Language and math
Non-dominant hemisphere controls:
Emotional tone of language, if people are happy/sad/anxious, creativity, music, special processing, big picture concepts
Old Brain
Brain structure builds on itself, so oldest brain is in the middle and contains the most simple structures for simple functions.
Structures: brainstem, reticular formation, thalamus, cerebellum
Brainstem
Made up of the medulla and pons. Controls heart beat/breathing and cross over point for our nerves
Reticular formation
Relays between brainstem and other areas. It filters info and sends important info to the thalamus. Sleep/wake cycle (arousal). Ability to be aware.
Thalamus
Located above the brainstem. It is the relay station for eye and ear info.Also functions in congintion and emotion
Cerebellum
Coordinates voluntary movement, specifically the motor plan. Receives positional sensations.
Middle: coordinates walking and middle body movement
Sides: involved in movements of the limbs.
This area is greatly affected by alcohol
Cranial nerves
12 pairs. Most of them attach to the brainstem. All sorts of unique functions
Subcortical cerebellum
Subcortical nuclei that are located deep in the cerebrum.
Includes the following structures: internal capsule, corpus collusum, basal ganglia, thalamus, hypothalamus
Internal capsule
Includes the corticospinal tract and many other important pathways
Corpus collosum
Connects right and left cerebral hemispheres
Basal ganglia
Major role in motor functions, don’t have UMNs but help motor areas to perform proper movements. Also cognition and emotion
Hypothalamus
Controls the pituitary gland, the master gland that controls all other glands in the body
Glutamate
The most common excitatory neurotransmitter. Reticular activating system diffuses glutamate all over the cerebral cortex. It is essential for consciousness
GABA and Glycine
The inhibitory NTs of the brain and spinal cord (respectively).
Acetylcholine
Released to the cerebral cortex by Basilis and septal nuclei in the frontal lobe. Released at the synapses of LMNs and the autonomic NS.
Histamine
From hypothalamus. Gets sent to the cerebral cortex
Norepinephrine
Area in the pons called the locus coeruleus that releases it to the cerebral cortex and ANS.
Serotonin
Released by Raphe nuclei located as several locations in the brain, including midbrain, pons, and medulla.
Raphe nuclei
Nuclei that release acetylcholine to the brain and other parts of the nervous system, like the brainstem
Ventral Tagmental Area
Site of dopamine production. Sends the NT to the pre-frontal cortex via the mesocortical pathway, which controls congnition, affect, and the negative symptoms of schizophrenia.
Also, NTs from here are transmitted to the nucleus accumbens, the amygdala, and the hippocampus. The mesolimbic pathway is associated with reward, motivation, and many of the positive symptoms of schizophrenia
Substantia nigra
One of the sites of dopamine production. The NTs from here get transmitted from neuron soma to axons projecting into the caudate nucleus and the putamen of the neostriatum via the nigrostriatal pathway.
Nigrostriatal pathway
Associated with motor planning and purposeful movement
Arcuate nucleus
One of the sites of dopamine production. The NTs from here go from the hypothalamus to teh pituitary gland via the tuberofundibular pathway.
Tuberofundibular Pathway
Dopamine-regulated pathway that controls secretion of of prolactin by inhibiting its release in the anterior pituitary
What are the two main neurotransmitter of the PNS?
Acetylcholine and epinephrine.
Amino acid neurotransmitters
GABA and Glycine
Peptide neurotransmitters
Opioids (endorphin - perception of pain)
Monoamine neurotransmitters
AKA Biogenetic amines: amino group and aromatic group connected by 2-carbon chain. Cognition/thinking/emotion/attention. Subgroup: catecholamines (benzene with 2 hydroxyl groups)
Low level of which neurotransmitter is associated with depression?
Serotonin
Which neurotransmitter levels are abnormal in Parkinson’s? How are they different from healthy conditions?
Dopamine - low levels
Which neurotransmitter is abnormal in schizophrenia and how is it affected?
Dopamine - high levels
Phrenologists
Believed that ach brain area is devoted to a certain personality characteristic, thought, emotion
Various methods of tissue lesion studies
Tissue removal: surgical removal, aspiration, or severing the nerve with a scalpel
Radiofrequency lesions: destroys tissue on the surface of the brain and deep inside. Wire inserted into brain to determine the area, then administer high-frequency current
Neurochemical lesions: MOST precise! Use of excitotoxic chemicals that bind to glutamate receptors and cause fatally high flux of Ca2+ into the neuron
Cortical cooling: AKA cryogenic blockade, involves cooling down neurons until they stop firing
Excitotoxins
Chemicals that bind to glutamate receptors and cause such high influx of Ca2+ that the neuron gets overexcited to death.
Ex: kainic acid (destroys cell bodies but doesn’t influence axons passing by), oxidopamine (selectively destroys dopamine and NE neurons, can model Parkinson’s)
Cryoloop
Surgically implanted between the skull and brain for temporary period. It is reversible! K/O nerves to see what the effect is and then brings the animal back to normal function
Muscimol
Neurochemical means of inducing temporary lesions. Binds and inhibits GABA receptors
Computer Axial Tomography
CAT scans, known as CT scans. Creates image of the brain by computationally compiling X-Ray images. Slightly lower resolution than MRI, but better for soft tissue. Only shows structure, but is sometimes combined with radioactive dye (PET scan) to show structure and activity
Magnetic resonance imaging
MRI - Uses radio waves exposed to a magnetic field to disrupt the orientation of atoms. Realignment of the atoms with the magnetic field releases signals, which are used to create an image. Does not give any info about current function
Electroencephalogram
EEG - External, cannot tell us about the activity of individual/groups of neurons. Can only look at the sum total and provide insights on seizures, sleep stages, and cognitive tasks.
Magnetoencephalogram
MEG or SQUIDS - better resolution than EEG, but rarer because large machine and special housing are needed. It records the magnetic fields produced by electric currents in the brai. Assesses function
fMRI
Functional MRI - Same as regular MRI but can now look at which structures are active, by measuring relative amounts of oxygenated vs deoxygenated blood in the brain. This shows which areas of the brain are most used during certain sitauations/tasks.
Hypothalamus - impact on behavior
Nervous system and endocrine system connection (very small)
Pituitary
Anterior: FLAT-PEG, FH, LH, ACTH, TSH, Prolactin, endorphins, GH
Posterior: ADH and oxytovin
Pars intermedia (intermediate lobe): melanocyte stimulating hormone
Thryroid
Regulates body metabolism via T3 and T4. Affects growth and development of the brain and regulates growth rates
Parathryoid
4 spots on the back of the thyroid. Regulates Ca2+ levels in the body
Adrenal glands
On top of the kidney. ACTH acts on adrenal cortex to control release of steroids and glucocorticosteroids like cortisol, and acts on the medulla to stimulate catecholamine release. Helps develop muscles and bones
Gonads
FSH and LH stimulation here release sex hormones
Pancreas
Regualtes blood sugar. Not tied to the pituitary gland
Pancreas
Regulates blood sugar. Not tied to the pituitary gland
Zona pellucida
Outer coating of egg cell that encases the plasma membrane
Acrosome reaction of fertilization
Occurs after the sperm binds to the egg. Enzyme leaks into zona pellucida and digests it. Results in sperm getting close to the plasma membrane of the egg
Steps of fertilization
Sperm binding, acrosome reaction, cortical reaction, genetic transfer
Cortical reaction
Enzymes from the inside of the egg cell get ejected into the zona pellucida to digest it. This prevents other sperm from binding to it
Polyspermy
More than one sperm binding to a single egg
Genetic transfer between sperm and egg
Sperm binds to plasma membrane, acrosome is gone, and cortical granules are released. The plasma membranes fuse and the sperm shoots its genetic info into the egg Completes fertilization. Most of the mitochondrial DNA comes from the egg
Genetic transfer between sperm and egg
Sperm binds to plasma membrane, acrosome is gone, an cortical granules are released. The plasma membranes fuse and the sperm shoots its genetic info into the egg Completes fertilization
Morula
32-cell stage of an embryo. Cells get closer together and begin differentiation: outside cells is a trophoblast, and the inside is an embryoblast
Blastulation
Zona pellucide disintegrates. The inner cell mass makes an amniotic cavity and the bottom cells of the inner cell mass differentiate into hypoblasts, and the cells above them become epiplasts
Bilamar disk
Epiblast + hypoplast
Formation occurs due to blastulation in embryogenesis
Primitive stream during embryogenesis
Migration of epiblast cells during blastulation
Gastrulation
Stage of embryogenesis in which trilaminar disk (germ layers).
Germ layers
inner to outer: endoderm: mesoderm, ectoderm
Neurulation
Stage of embryogenesis in which the core of the mesoderm differentiates into the notochord, which induces change in the cells above in the ectoderm, forcing formation of the neural plate
Stage of embryogenesis (in order)
(Fertilization), Morulation, Blastulation, Gastrulation, Neurulation
Apposition
The is when the blastocyst attaches to the endometrium
Syncytiotrophoblasts
A continuous, specialized layer of epithelial cells. They form villi and fetal blood vessels immediately following implantation of the blastocyst. They also line the inside of uterine cavity to placenta
Endoderm
GI tract tube (espophagus, small and large instestines), lungs, liver, and pancreas
Mesoderm
Forms inner layers of skin, muscles, bones, cardiac muscles, kidneys, and bladder, ovaries/testes
Ectoderm
Outer layer of skin, sweat glands, hair skin, nervous system
Gestation and Time 0
Three 3-month trimesters. Time 0 is the date of LMP (last menstrual period)
Reflexes
Pre-programmed motor skills. Involuntary motor movement/automatic. Babies are born with them
Gross motor skills
Legs/arms. Develop earlier than fine.
Fine motor skils
More precise actions like cutter with scissors or coloring a picture. Develops after gross
Neonatal reflexes
They disappear as baby ages. Some are survival reflexes while others are evolutionary holdovers or precursors.
If they reappear in adults, there is serious issue
Rooting reflex
Neonatal reflex. Stroking of the side of a baby’s mouth triggers them to turn their heads. For breastfeeding in first weeks of life, but then the action becomes voluntary
Babinskly Reflex
How baby will turn/unturn toes when the bottom of the foot is stroked. Present if the big toe extends up towards the surface of the foot and the other toes fan out
Monro reflex
Startle reaction. Fans out arms then back
Tonic neck reflex
AKA Fencing posture: when baby’s head is turned, the arm on the side to which they are turned straightens while the arm on the side that is opposite bends
Galant Reflex
Skin stroking causes the baby to turn towards the side that was stroked
Palmer grasp reflex
Children close their hands on anything that comes in their palm
Sucking reflex
Baby will suck on anything that is put in their mouth for the first 3-4 months
Stepping reflex
Holding an infant upright and their feet touch a flat surface, they will start to step as if trying to walk. Disappears in the first two months of life
Swimming reflex
Infants move their arms and legs in water in a swimming motion. Involuntarily holds breaths. Lets infant swim/float for a short period of time. Disappears around 6 mos old
Areas of the brain that change shape during adolescence
Prefrontal cortex (develops more), limbic system, corpus callosum. Global changes throughout brain
Limbic system changes during adolescence
Amygdala - explains why teenagers are moody. Hypthalamus - regulates endocring system.
What are the changes in the corpus callosum during adolescence responsible for?
Language/language learning
Synaptic pruning
Breaking down connections between certain neurons - allows the focusing of resources on the pathways we use most.
Myelination _____ during puberty
increases
Simple traits
Ex: hair or eye color. Can be linked to specific genes
Complex trains
Controlled by groups of genes that interact with each other and the environment. May be activated/inactivated by the environment.
Ex: happiness, intelligence, aggressiveness
Temperament
Broader than personality. Characteristic emotional reactivity, intensity, shyness, and socialbility. Seems to be established before babies are exposed to environment. Persistent as person ages
Personality
Believed to be constant over lifetime
Classical twin study
Compare monozygotic and dizygotic twins each raised in the same household
Nature vs nurture of schizophrenia
Could be entirely nurture, but is usually an interaction of the genetics and environment of a person
Adoption studies
Adopted childe is comapred to biological family and their adopted family. Which are they more similar to in personality?
Heritability
The percentage of variation of trains due to genes. It estimates the amount of variance that can be attributed to genes in specific subgroups of individuals. Variability of traits can be attributed to differences in genes.
What does it mean when we say a gene is 50% heritable?
It means that differences in that specific trait are 50% caused by genes.
More genetic variation leads to ___ heritability
greater
Epigenetics
Changes to gene expression resulting from changes other than gene/DNA sequence.
Ex: methylation of a gene makes it mroe difficult for TFs to come in and activate the gene –> lowers transcription and effectively translation
Phenyketonuria
PKU: A genetic condition in which Phe builds up because there is a mutation in the gene for the enzyme that would normally convert it to Tyr. Buildup causes brain issues.
The expression of PKU us dependent on the environment. Symptoms can be managed with a specific Phe-free diet
**Illustrates interaction of genes and environment
Overall function of behavior
To maintain homeostasis. Behavior is a coordinated internal and external response of an organism
Ethology
Focuses on the observation of observable (overt) animal behaviors
Innate behavior
Genetically programmed behavior. Present at birth and requires no experience with the environment. It is inherited, intrinsic, stereotypic, inflexible, consummate
The three types of innate behavior
Reflexes
Orientation behavior: regulating spacially in environment
Fixed action pattern: sequence of coordinated movement performed without interruption
Positive/Negative taxis
Movement towards/away from a stimulus (respectively)
Learned behavioral traits
Persistent changes in our behavior that result from experiences.
Non-inherited, extrinsic, permutable (changeable), adaptable, progressive
Complex behavior
Combination of innate and learned behavior. Relationship between environment and genes in adaptation. Covert behavior
Covert behavior
It is not observable. Complex behavior is a form of it
Positive feedback
Process that increases production of a product. One product stimulates production of another product
Negative feedback
Rate or process that needs to be controlled to decrease product
5 schools of thought regarding emotion
Evolutionary, drive reduction theory, optimum arousal theory, cognitive, Maslow’s Hierarchy or Needs
Evolutionary Approach to motivation
Emphasizes the role instincts play in motivation. What do humans do to survive?
Drive reduction theory of motivation
Focuses on drives vs needs. Need is the lack or deprivation that will energize the drive or aroused state. That drive is the aroused state. Fulfilling the drive will reduce the need (which is typically basic, essential, and physiological)
Optimum arousal theory of motivation
People want to reach full arousal/alertness. Drive to get full arousal and natural high (a state we enjoy, which is why people go to amuesment parks).
Cognitive Approach to motivation
Rational and decision-making ability - thought processes drive behavior. Ex: light bulb going off in someone’s head
Id
The innate reservoir of all psychic energy. Seeks to discharge tension arising from internal needs or external stimulation. Made up of all instincts and wats to get rid of all uncomfortable feelings (“Drive Reduction Theory”)
“The pleasure principle”
To gain pleasure or avoid pain. To accomplish this it uses:
Reflex actions Primary processes (forming a mental image of the desired product) Wish fulfillment (the image of your diesire which temporarily restores comfor
Ego
MEdiates the demands of reailty vs the desires of the Id. The self. This is who we identify with/believe ourselves to be
Superego
The internalization of cultural ideals and parental sanctions. “Morals,” interjection/internalization. Inhibitis sexual and aggressive impulses, and tries to replace reality with morality, striving from perfection. Has subsystems: The conscious (what is “wrong”), the ego ideal (what is “right”)
Incentive Theory of Motivation
A reward, either tangible or intangible, is presented after the occurrence of the action with the intention of making the behavior occur again. Creates positive association with the behavior, so individual will carry it out again to make themselves happier.
Utilizes positive reinforcement
Extrinsic Motivation
Associatd with REWARDS or OBLIGATED behavior. Motivation to do something based on an external reward (like money or fame).
Intrinsic Motivation
internal motivation
Drive-reduction Motivation
Based on the need to fulfill a certain drive, like hunger or thirst
Amotivation
Lack of motivation
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Pyramid of needs, with the order or filling from bottom to top:
Physiological, Safety, Love, Self-esteem, Self-actualism
Think: Please Stop Liking Stupid Shit
Positive reinforcement
Continuous positive stimulus after a certain behavior in order to motivat the behavior to occur again in the future. One must be constantly given positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
The removal of stimuli to encourage a response. Basis of drive-reduction theory of motivation
Two factors that regulate our intake of food, sex, and drugs:
Biological factors: hormones and how our brain regulates/reacts to them
Socio-culture: our conscious choices on how we express our needs
Lateral Hypothalamus
Sends positive signals to start eating.
Ventromedial Hypothalamus
When functioning properly, it signals us to stop eating. Lectin levels get elevated (appetite suppressing)
How is there a genetic predisposition to our weight?
Set point is influenced by our parents’
Sexual response cycle
Excitement phase (increased HR, BP, muscle tension)
Plateau
Orgasm
Resolution/refractory
Hormones active in the acquisition of sex
Prolactin is related to seual gratification and is associated with relieving sequal arousal after an orgasm.
Endorphins produce feeling so euphoria and pleasure and are released post-orgasm
Oxytocin is released after an orgasm to facilitate bonds and feelings of connectedness between sexual partners
Effect of excessive dopamine levels in the brain
Overstimulates/activates the limbic system, which controls movement, emotion, motivation, pleasure. Elicits a state of euphoria.
Cocaine has this effect on the brain. This is the reinforcing effect in action (we want to constantly use the drug that stimulates the brain in this way)
Attitude and ABC Model of attitude
A learned tendency to evaluate things in a certain way. To evaluate people, issues, events, objects.
Affective (emotional), behavioral, cognitive components all help shape our attitude
Theory of Planned Behavior
Intentions + Implications –> we consider the implications of our actions before we decide on how to behave. Intentions are based on attitudes towards a certain behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control
Attitude to Behavior Process model
An event triggers our attitude (something that will influence our perception of an object). The attitude plus some outside knowledge together determine behavior
Prototype Willingness Model of Behavior
States the behavior is a function of 6 things:
past behavior, attitudes, subjective norms, intentions, willingness, models/prototyping
Elaboration Likelihood Model for Persuasion
A more cognitive-based approach of persuasion –> focuses on the why/how of persuasion. Info can be processed in central route (related to the argument/reasoning) persuasion or peripheral route (superficial factors) persuasion
Kinship of Affinity
A relationship in which the individuals are related by choice (ex: marriage, friendship), rather than by blood
Internal validity
The degree to which causal conclusions can be drawn from a study, which is enhanced by accounting for potential confounding variables
Central Route of Persuasion
Degree of attitude change depends of the quality of the arguments by the persuader. Depends on the quality of the persuasive case presented. The WORDS are important
Peripheral Route of Persuasion
Superficial cues/expertise/non-verbal factors like attractiveness/status of the persuader determine the persuasiveness of their argument.
Principle of Aggregation
The idea that people are more likely to be honest when general patterns of behavior are observed vs a single one
People are ___ likely to be honest when social influences are rigid.
less
Foot in the door phenomenon
A persuader proposing relatively small ideas/favors first, and then progressing to larger, more significant ones. Basic concept behind brainwashing (door is completely open)
Effort justification
People’s tendency to attribute a greater value to an outcome they had to put effort into acquiring or achieving
Door in the Face Technique
Persuader presents a large favor to which they expect their respondent’s immediate decline in hopes of them accepting a second, smaller request
Cognitive Dissonance
The discomfort experienced when holding 2 or more conflicting cognitions (ideas, beliefs, values, emotional reactions) - contradictions. The individual is motivated to reduce this discomfort by aligning thought and/or behaviors, which can be doen through changing beliefs, changing behavior, or changing attitudes
Four Things Humans do to reduce Cognitive Dissonance
- Modify cognitions: alter thinking process on one’s action/behavior to reduce their discomfort with it
- Trivialize: make less important/make trivial, change the importance of their cognition
- Add: adding more cognitions to make contradictions more comfortable
- Deny: deny the facts
**NOTE: none of these involve changing the behavior
Selective exposure
Avoidance of a stimulus to reduce dissonance
Social Psychology
A branch of psychology that analyzes the situational approach to behavior and emphasizes the influence of social phenomena and people interactions with each other on influence. Major focus on the interaction between the individual and their environment rather than stable personality traits.
Attribution
The process of inferring causes of events/behaviors. Can be internal or external.
If a person’s behavior is consistent in all situations, attribution is more _____ than _____.
More internal than external.
Their behavior does not depend on the situation
Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality
Focuses on one’s unconscious thoughts and desires as the determining factors of personality. Largely determined by childhood experiences and past memories. Supported and convey strongly by Freud
Libido
Natural energy source that fuels energy of the mind for motivation, survival, growth, pleasure, etc. Conflicts occur when this energy is stuck/fixated at a various stage of psychosexual development – Fixation at a particular stage is what predicts adult personality
Id
The unconscious part of the mind. Develops after birth and demands immediate gratification. Impulses are due to the id
Ego
Part of both conscious and unconscious. It is involved in our perceptions, thoughts, and judgments. It seeks long-term gratification.
The ego mediates between the impulses of the id and the morality of the superego
Superego
One’s moral conscience. Part of both conscious and unconscious minds. Develops around the age of 4
Freudian Slip
An example of mental conflict between any of the id, ego, and superego
Humanistic Theory of Personality
Focuses on the conscious and the idea that people are inherently good, and that we are self-motivated to grow and reach self-actualization. Focuses on humans’ free will
Carl Rogers
Humanistic theorist that believed humans CAN reach self-actualization as long as one is genuine towards and about themselves, and has acceptance from others (allows people to be their ideal selves).
Differed from Maslow because Maslow believed that most people cannot reach self-actualization (only about 1% of people do)
Hans Eysenck
Biological theorist. He proposed that degree of extroversion is based on differences in the reticular formation (controls arousal and consciousness). Introverts’ RF are quicker to arousal so they choose to seek lower levels of stimulation
Jeffrey Alan Gray
Biological theorist who proposed that personality is governed by a behavioral inhibition (punishment/avoidance)-activation (reward) system
Think: 50 shades of Gray is based on punishment/reward
C. Rober Cloninger
Linked personality to brain systems of reward/motivation/punishment
Temperament
Innate disposition, our mood/activity level, and is consistent throughout our life
Behaviorist Theory of Personality
States that personality is the result of learned behavior patterns, so it is fully based on environment. Asserts that the human begins as a blank slate.
Focuses on observable, measurable behavior rather than mental/emotional
Skinner
A behaviorist who focused on operant conditioning. Believed and demonstrated that punishments/rewards decrease/increase behaviors, respectively
Pavlov
Behaviorist associated with classical conditioning: placed a neutral stimulus (CS) in simultaneous occurrence with a nonneutral stimulus (US) and demonstrated that CS comes to eventually provoke a conditioned response even when the US is taken away
Cognitive Theory of Personality
Bridge between behavioral and psychoanalytic approaches (connecting the observable to the mental)
Trait Theory
Relies on the proposed existence of traits: stable predisposition towards a certain behavior (pattern of behvaior). Focuses on how people are different
Surface Traits vs Source Traits
Surface: evident through person’s behaviors
Source: factors underlying human personality. fewer and more abstract
Myers Briggs Personality Test
Trait Approach in use. Classifies subject as one of 16 different types using 4 letters
Gordon Allport
Trait theorist that believed we all have different traits. Came up with three categories of traint: cardinal, central, and secondary
Cardinal traits
Direct most of a person’s activities/behaviors. The most dominant traits of a person
Central trait
Less dominant than cardinal traits. Ex: honesty, sociability, shyness
Secondary traits
Preferences or attitudes. Ex: love for modern art, reluctance to eat fish, etc.
Raymond Cattell
Trait theorist that believes human have 16 essential personality traits that represent basic dimensions of personality, and created the 16PF test from this
Psychoticism
Degree to which reality is distorte
Extroversion vs Introversion
Degree of sociability
Neuroticism
Emotional stability
Eysenck’s Three Major Dimensions of Personality
Psychoticism, extroversion, and neuroticism
Think: PEN, or Eysenck’s Pen
Agreeableness
Kind vs cold, appreciative vs unfriendly
Openness
independent vs conforming, imagining vs practical
The Big Five
Traits believe to be found in all people of all populations:
Openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, neuroticism
Conscientiousness
Careful vs careless, disciplines vs impulse, organized vs not
Factor analysis
A statistical method that categorizes and determines major categories of traits. IT reduces variables and detects structure between variables
Mirror neurons
Those responsible for observational learning (also called social learning/vicarious learning), which is achieved by watching others.
They fire both when an individual is performing a certain function and when they are watching another person perform it
Social Cognitive Theory
Theory of behavior change that emphasizes interaction between people and their environment. In contrast to behaviorism
Albert Bandura and his experiment
Studies social cognitive theory in performing the Bobo Doll Experiment
Exp: children were playing and then a man came in and started beating and screaming at a Bobo Doll. Some children observed and some were unphased. Then the children were given an impossible puzzle to solve in order to elicit frustration. Many children came up to the doll and hit it, yelling similar things that the man did earlier.
Key takeaway: children learn from examples
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
Attention, Memory, Imitation, Motivation
Think: Am I Motivated?
Defense Mechanisms
Psychological shields against anxiety or discomfort of unconscious psychological processes. Four categories: pathological, immature, neurotic, and mature
Pathological Defense Mechanisms
Distort reality through denial. Person pretends something hasn’t happened. Most important defense mechanism
Immature Defense Mechanism
Projection- throw your attributes to someone else, like accusing another person of being jealous when you are the one being jealous
Passive Aggression - aggressively doing something fr someone and failing to do it or doing it slowly. A passive way to express your anger
Projective Identification
A potential result of a person being the target of another’s projection as their defense mechanism. The victim may actually start to feel the way that the projector is making them out to be
Neurotic Defense Mechanisms
Think: 3R-I-D
Intellectualization, rationalization, regression, repression, displacement
Mature Defense Mechanisms
Think: Mature HASS
Humor, Altruism, Sublimation, Suppression
Pleasure Principle
Young children (or immature adults) want to immediately feel pleasure to avoid suffering. Not willing to compromise
Reality Principle
With maturation, short-term reward gets replaced by long-term gratification. Not always going to get what you want and the outside world might tolerate your behavior or it might not. You have to play by the rules
Eros Drives
LivLife Drives like health, safety, sex. Comes with love, cooperation, collaboration. Working with others to promote your and others well-being
Thantos
Death Drive. Self-destructive/harmful to others. Comes with fear, anger (inward or outwar), hate
Neustress
Natural type of stress. Happens when you are exposed to something stressful, but it doesn’t actively or directly affect you. Ex: a hurricane on the other side of the world may be stressful. but your body doesn’t perceive it as good or bad stress
ICD-10 vs DSM-5
ICD-10: International classification of diseases put out by the WHO. 11 top-level categories
DSM-5: Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, put out by the APA. 20 top-level categories
Dysgraphia
Learning disability in which writing is impaired
Schizophrenia
Long-term. High distress and disability.
Characterized by high levels of dopamine. Due to a combination of genetics and environmental effects. Symptoms include hallucinations, delusions, isolating themselves, disorganization, and lack of emotion. Equal rates in males and females.
Prodrome: the period of time before schizophrenic symptoms present. Leads to the disorder
Avolition
The reduction, difficulty, or inability to initiate and persist in goal-directed behavior. It is often mistaken for apparent disinterest. Person is UNABLE. A symptom of schizophrenia
Alogia
Poverty of speech. T - low fluency and productivity, though tot reflect slowing or blocked thoughts and often manifested as short, empty replies to questions
Catatonic schizophrenia
A subtype in which the patient cannot move, speak, or respond
Areas of the brain and neurotransmitters affected in depression
Brain: frontal lobe and limbic structures
NTs: serotonin, NE, and dopamine (all low)
Phobias
Focused anxiety. Can be debilitating (agoraphobia) or not affect your daily life much at all (fear of snakes). Tends to form a pattern
Dissociate Identity Disorder
Used to be called multiple personality disorder. The two identities are distinct. RARE. Potentialy caused by stress
Somatic Symptomn Disorders
Mental disorders manifesting in physical symptoms
Conversion Disorder
A somatic symptom disorder in which the symptoms are ONLY neurological, and the symptoms can not be explained by test or physical exam
Factitious Disorder / Munschausen’s Syndrome
Patient wants ot be sick, so they will falsify disease signs or symptoms to get diagnosis/treatment/attention
Clusters of Personality Disorders
Cluster A: odd, eccentric trains
Cluster B: dramatic, emotional, erratic traits
Cluster C: anxiety and fearful
Think: ABC = weird, wild, worried
Three potential areas of sleep problem occurrence and their corresponding forms of apnea
Brain: Central Sleep Apnea
Upper Airways: Obstructive Sleep Apnea
Lungs or Chest Walls: Hypoventilation Disorder
Central Sleep Apnea
Brain is no longer properly controlling ventilation. Cheynes-Stroke breathing occurs: crescendo then decrescendo breathing followed by stop in breathing.
Obstructive Sleep Apnea
When upper airways are obstructed. Soft tissues around our neck can relax at night and potentially cause obstruction of airflow for a short period of time.
Hypoventialtion Disorder
Sleep disorder in which the lungs/chest wall stops lungs from being able to expand –> we are then unable to fully remove all CO2. Low O2 levels occur as well
What happens to the brain during Alzheimer’s?
Loss of neurons, presence of amyloid plaques, clumping/tangles of neuro fibers and the protein tau/
Nucleus basalis is often lost early in the disease –> the absence decreases ACh levels in the brain
What happens to the brain during Parkinson’s?
Substantia nigra becomes less dark or not dark at all (it is black in healthy brains). Dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra and other areas of the brain are lost. Abnormal Lewy bodies form in the diseased dopaminergic neurons of the Sibstantia Nigra
Symptoms of Parkinson’s
Slowed movements, tremors, increased muscle tone, abnormal walking, and poor balance (leading to falls).
Symptoms of Depression/MDD
Think: SIG: E CAPS
Suicidal thoughts/low mood, interests decreased, guilt, energy decreased, concentration decreased, appetite disturbance, psychomotor changes/symptoms, sleep disturbances
Biopsychosocial Factors of Depression
Bio: genetic, decreased activation in prefrontal cortex, decreased levels of serotonin and norepinephrine (both monoamines)
Psycho: learned helplessness, cognitive distortions (trapped in a negative thought pattern), attribution (linking negative experiences with internal causes), low self-esteem, poor coping mechanisms
Sociocultural/Environmental: co-rumination (peer/partner with depression increases risk of own depression), low SES, social isolation/child abuse, internalization of prejudice
Dependent stressor of MDD
Depressed person would be more likely to experience a greater number of stressors that he or she influences
Independent stressor of MDD
Occurs without the person’s influence.
Hypomania
Mild form of mania that is usually not that bad. Lots of energy, happiness, and productivity, and little need for sleep.
Bipolar I Disorder
When hypomania becomes manic, with OR without major depressive disorder.
Mania is a requirement. Depression may or may not be present
Bipolar II Disorder
Manic episode is NOT present. It is hypomania with at least one major depressive episode
Cyclothymic Disorder
Hypomania + dysthymia
Social Psychology
How individuals think, feel, and behave, in social interactions. People act differently in groups compared to individually
Informative infuence
Look to a group for guidance when you don’t know what to do and you assume the group is correct.
Think: trusting the *informants*
Normal influence
Even if you know what’s right, do what group’s negative actions are to avoid social rejection.
Think: peer pressure is normal
Privately conform
Change behaviors and core opinions to align with group
Publically conform
Outwardly changing, but inside actually maintaining core beliefs. You only appear to be agreeing with the group
Groupthink
Occurs when maintaining harmony among group members is more important than carefully analyzing problem at hand, often for the sake of group “unity”. Happens among cohesive, insulated groups. Often have important/respected leaders,
Often, the first suggestion proposed by the leader is adopted. Espeically if there is little hope of finding a better solution. Explains what is wrong with the US Congress lol
Group polarization
A phenomenon where group decision-making amplifies the original opinion of group members. A stronger version of the decision is adopted
Confirmation Bias
Group members seek out information that supports the majority view
Life Course Approach to illness
Examines the risk factors (psychological, biological, and sociocultural) that have a cumulative effect on health and wellness
Taste Aversion
A powerful and specific type of classical conditioning, the neutral (soon to be conditioned) stimulus of which is the food, and the unconditioned stimulus is whatever unpleasant experience occurred while you were eating/near the food.
Medicalization
The effort to describe a type of behavior as a symptom of an underlying illness that should be treated by a doctor
Subculture
Groups within a dominant culture that hold values distinct from the dominant, although not directly opposed
Looking-glass self
Psychological concept which states that a person’s self grows out of society’s interpersonal interactions and the perceptions of others. Refers to people shaping their self-concepts based on their understanding of how others perceive them.
Deindividuation
Describes how people lose their sense of self-awareness in a large group setting, which provides a high degree of arousal and also sense of responsibility. Main contributing factors: anonymity, diffused responsibilty, and group size
Bystander effect
AKA bystand apathy - people do not offer help to a victim if there are other people present The likelihood of responding and helping a victim decreases as number of bystanders increases. Explained by diffusion of responsibility theory
Actor-observer bias
We tend to place our own actions as due to external factors rather than on our personalities
Self-serving bias
Tendency to credit one’s own successes to themselves and their failures either to the actions of others or to the situation
In-group bias
People are biased towards those vied as being part of their in-group
Attributional bias
Judging the cause of a behavior based on prior beliefs or expectations. “Refers to the systematic error make when people evaluate or try to find reasons for their own and others’ behaviors”
Framing Bias
The way an option or decision is presented to a person will change how they feel about it and influence their likelihood to make a particular decision
Egocentric Bias
The tendency to overstress changes between the past and present in order to make oneself appear more worthy or competent than one actually is.
Automation Bias
The tendency to excessively depend on automated systems –> can lead to erroneous automated info overriding correct decisions.
Ethnocentrism
Judging another culture by one’s own cultural values
Ecological validity
Refers to how findings from an experimental setting can be generalized to the environmental considerations in the real world
Objective vs Subjective Personality Tests
Objective: Measures specific personality characteristics based on a set of discrete options (ex: Meyers-Briggs)
Subjective: Allows patients to project their subjective feelings, perceptions, and thoughts onto the assessment stimuli. The results are open for inaccuracy as different physicians may reach different conclusions
Differential Association Theory
Individuals engage in crime because they are exposed to it, while individuals that do not commit crimes have not been exposed to this behavior. Asserts that criminal behavior is simply learned
Strain Theory
If a person is blocked from attaining a culturally accepted goal, they may become frustrated/STRAINED and turn to deviance.
An attempt to reduce crime regarding this theory: Deemphasizing the importance of values, like material worth, that previously motivated people to commit crimes
Labeling Theory
A theory of deviance that asserts the idea that a behavior is deviant if people have judged the behavior and labeled it as deviant. It depends on what is acceptable in a specific society
T/F: Wernicke’s aphasia does not affect one’s ability to connect meaning to language
Also, where is Wernicke’s area? Broca’s?
FALSE
Wernicke’s: temporal lobe
Broca’s: frontal lobe
Where does logical processing occur in the brain?
What about emotional processing?
Logical: Frontal Lobe
Emotional: Temporal Lobe
Expert Power
Experts tend to exert power through knowledge of subject matter; likely appealing to high-motivation, high-knowledge people
Referent power
Exerted by appealing to the audience members’ desires. Likely appeals to low-motivation/low-knowledge individuals
Coercive power
Exerted via force or threat of force
Proactive Interference
Currently existing long-term memories can interfere with the process of forming new long-term memories
Korsakoff’s Syndrome
A neurological disorder in which patients experience chronic memory impairment, commonly due to alcohol abuse. Major characteristic is thiamine deficiency –> reduces the activity of certain enzymes, decreasing mitochondrial activity, energy production, and eventually causing neuronal death
Social Anomie
Breakdown of social bonds between an individual and community. Results in social groups disbanding and alienation from social groups. This means there is a weakened sense of morality and criteria for behavior
Resolution: Strengthening of social norms and redevelopment of shared norms
Folkways
Social norms that have absent/non-serious consequences if they are broken
Ex: they way you are “supposed to” stand in an elevator
Mores
Social norms that are deemed highly necessary to the welfare of a society. There are consequences if they are broken.
Ex: seeking medical attention for a serious acute illness
Taboo
Behaviors that are completely forbidden/wrong in any circumstance
Serious social norms, the breaking of which results in consequences more serious than for breaking a more (like rejection from the specific society)
Ex: Certain religions not eating certain animals
Conformity
“Peer Pressure” - how we adjust our behavior/thinking to match a group’s. CAn be positive or negative
Obedience
Describes how one follows orders given by an authority figure. No cognitive component. Can be positive or negative. High obedience correlates with lower status, close proximity of the authority figure, legitimacy, consensus of the group, and collectivism (societies that value the group over the individual)
Compliance
Situations where we do behavior to get a reward or avoid punishment. Tendency to go along with behavior without questioning why
Identification
When people act/dress a certain way in order to emulate someone they respect.
Freud believed that a part of child development included reaching a certain age at which the child adopts characteristics of one of the parents (ie young boy stats acting more like his father than his mother)
Internalization
The act of an idea/belief/behavior becoming integrated into our own values. It happens privately and is stronger than other types of conformity.
Normative Social Influence
When we do something to gain the respect/support of peers, we are complying with social norms
Informational Social Influence
When we conform based on a feeling that others are more knowledgeable than us - we think they know something that we don’t
Solomon Asch
A Gestal Psychologist who believed that human behavior must be considered as a whole (broken into parts is near meaningless). Studies the influence of group behavior on an individual –> Asch’s Line Studies
Asch’s Line Studies
Experimenter asked participants to identify which line on a card matched the target line (very easy task). All subjects were present for each others’ trials.
Error rate was extremely low, except when the first participant (confederate) intentionally answered incorrectly –> 75% of following participants conformed to the wrong answer at least once, and 37% conformed every single time
Perceptual Error
An incorrect answer given because of a genuine belief that others were correct in proposing it before
Demand characterisitcs
Describes how participants change behavior to match expectation of experimenter. Conformed because that’s what experimenter wanted them to do
Motivation behind Milgram Studies
Milgram wanted to know whether Nazi officers were “just following orders” in committing such horrible acts towards prisoners in the Holocaust. Studying obedience.
Experiment of the Milgram Study
There were two subjects in each trial (but one was a confederate that was always assigned the role of learner and the real subject was the teacher). Teacher was instructed to shock the learner every time a wrong answer was given. Teacher and learner were visually separated but not audibly. The shocks were not real, but the confederate cried out like they were.
Findings: VERY FEW PEOPLE RESISTED AUTHORITY AND OBEYED TO SHOCK THE PATCIPANTS
“Just world phenomenon”
Idea that the universe is fair so people must get what they deserve (good happens to good ppl, bad to bad). Some people use it to justify their actions
Fundamental Attribution Error
Tendency to believe that others in out-groups behave certain ways based on inherent personality traits/flaws rather than situational factors
Zimbardo Study
Stanford Prison Experiment - studies conformity/obedience. Assigned subjects the title of either “prisoner” or “guard.” All of them knew that the assignments were random.
Outcome: guards began acting too viciously to prisoners
Conclusion: situations have major impacts on behavior. The guards were able to easily behave badly towards others due to deindividuation. The guards’ behavior caused them to experience cognitive dissonance. The prisoners internalized their roles as prisoners
Issues with the Stanford Prison Experiment
Zimbardo himself was participating by acting as the prison warden - he allowed the bad behavior to ensue. Selection bias - subjects were voluntary students from Stanford. Demand characteristics - the participants knew this was an experiment.
Factors affecting conformity and obedience
Group size, unanimity, group status, group cohesion, observed behavior, public response, internal factors (prior commitments, feelings of insecurity), type of authority giving orders and one’s closeness to them (mentally and physically), legitimacy of authority, institutional authority, victim distance, depersonalization, role models for defiance, one’s mood
Yerkes-Dodson Law
The presence of others improves performance on simple tasks and hinders performance on difficult/unpracticed tasks
Hawthorne Effect
AKA the observer effect: a type of reactivity in which individuals modify or improve an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed. A participant changes their behavior solely based on the fact that they know they are being observed
Think: Observe the Thorns
Socialization and Agents of Socialization
The life-long process in which we learn how to interact with others. It is how we learn what is considered normal in society
Agents: family (most important), school, peers, popular culture (mass media including TV, internet, radio, books, magazines), and religion
Norms
Standards for what behaviors are acceptable - set by groups of individuals. Usually guided by some sort of moral standard or ethical value that is easily understood and internalized by all members of the group.
Provides structure
Sanctions
Modes of reinforcing norms - they are rewards (positive) or punishments (negative). Can be formal (officially recognized and enforced) or informal (unofficially recognized and does not result in specific punishmnet)
Deviance
When a norm is violated. Not always negative - simply characterized by individuals behaving differently from what society feels in normal. Deviance is relative - depends on context, individuals, group, and country
Symbolic Interactionism
Society is a product of everyday interactions and individuals - This concept looks at how people behave in normal everyday situations and helps us to better understand and define deviance.
Addresses the subjective meanings people believe to be true.
Developed by George H Mead, continued by Herbert Blumer.
Key difference in Bottom-Up vs Top-Down Processing
Bottom-Up: Interpretation is driven by sensory stimuli
Top-Down: Interpretation is driven by beliefs, ideas, and expectations
Primary Deviance
No major consequences. The reaction to this type of deviance is usually very mild and does not affect person’s self-esteem, Individual is able to continue to behave in the same way without feeling immoral/wrong. Ex: all athletes on a particular team use steroids, so a player participating in this act is not labeled as deviant
Secondary deviance
More serious consequences, characterized by severe negative reaction that produces a stigmatizing label and results in more deviant behavior.
Ex: Teammates of an athlete label player’s behavior as deviant and they exclude him from practices and call him a terrible player. His reaction: continued use of steroids to be a better player.
Collective behavior
Involves short social interactions. Collectives can be open (vs. groups, which are exclusive), and have loose norms. Generally violates widely held social norms, Driven by group dynamics, like deindividuation. NOT the same as group behavior.
Fad
“Fleeting behavior” - becomes incredibly popular, but loses popularity just as quickly. Reaches a large number of people in a given time. Not necessarily in line with normal behavior. Perceived as “cool.”
Ex: cinnamon challenge
Mass hysteria
Large number of people who experience unmanageable delusion and anxiety at the same time (high emotional/irrational responses). Reactions spread rapidly and reach others through rumors and fears. Often takes the form of panic reactions and negative news or potential threat
Can be spread by panic and spread of information by the media
Mass psychogenic illness/epidemic hysteria
Mass hysteria can be the result of psychology, like when large amount of people believe they have the same illness despite lack of disease.
Habituation
Person tunes out an ongoing stimulus
Sensitization
Person becomes more responsive to a stimulus
Associative learning
When one event is connected to another. The two forms: classical and operant
Classical conditioning
Pavlov’s Dogs!
An innate response to a potent stimulus comes to be elicited in response to a previously neutral stimulus; achieved by repetitive pairings of the neutral and potent stimuli
Unconditioned stimulus
Stimulus that causes the unconditioned (innate) response.
In Pavlov’s experiment, UCS was the meat
Generalization in Classical Conditioning
Tendency of stimulus similar to conditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response. The more similar the stimulus is to the original CS, the greater the conditioned response
Discrimination in Classical Conditioning
Demonstrated when subject has learned NOT to exhibit the CR to objects that are similar to the CS - they have made this distinction
Extinction in Classicla Conditioning
If the CS happens over and over without the UCS, the subject stops displaying the conditioned response
Spontaneous recovery
When an old conditioned stimulus elicits the conditioned response (CR would have been extinct for a period, but now it occurs with inconsistency)
Extinctive Burst
When an animal no longer receives regular reinforcement (ie in the process of extinction), its conditioned behavior will sometimes INCREASE.
Ex: pigeon that has been given food every time it pushes a button is no longer receiving food. Just before extinction of the pigeon’s button-pushing behavior, it may push the button over and over again
Aversive Conditioning
A form of behavioral therapy that is used to stop a negative habit. The negative behavior is paired with an unpleasant stimulus.
Systematic Desensitization
Form of classical conditioning therapy in which feelings of anxiety are replaced with relaxation. Includes implosive therapy
Implosive therapy
Subject is exposed to a great deal of anxiety-provoking stimuli with the intent that they will see they survived and realize now that their fear is irrational
Counterconditioning
The conditioning of an unwanted behavior into a wanted behavior by associating positive actions with the stimulus. Similar to extinction in that the original behavior disappears, but different in that it is replaced with a different one
BF Skinner
Major psychologist associated with operant conditioning. Created “Skinner boxes” - bare boxes in which rats were operantly conditioned to perform certain tasks
Primary reinforcers
Innately satisfying/desirable. Ex: food, water, sexual activity
Secondary reinforcers
Those learned to be desired (so they were previously neutral). REquires a pairing or association with a primary reinforcer in order for it to come to hold value.
Ex: money
Token Economy
System of behavior modifications based on systematic reinforcement of target behavior, reinforcers are “tokens” that can be exchanged for other reinforcers
Ex: prizes
Operant Extinction
After successfully operantly conditioning a subject, the desired response is no longer being reinforced. Over time, the desired response stops occurring
Instinctual Drift
Operantly learned techniques eventually are replaced by innate food-related behaviors. Thus, the learned behavior “drifts” to the organism’s species-specific instinctual behavior
Shaping
Facilitating learning by successively reinforcing behaviors that approximate the target behavior
Partial Reinforcement Schedule
Behavior is only reinforced sometimes. More resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement. Requires prior shaping
Fixed-Ratio
Reinforcement only occurs after a specific, fixed number of responses
Fixed-Interval
Time is constant between reinforcements. Ex: Paycheck every two weeks.
Response rate is slower
Variable Ratio
Reinforcement is delivered after varying numbers of desired responses. The numbers vary but create a desired average.
MOST effective –> VR = Very Rapid
Variable-Interval
Responses are reinforced after a variable amount of time has passed, regardless of amount.
Ex: pay bonus can come randomly on different days
Simple innate behaviors
Reflexes, taxis, kinesis
Complex innate behavior
Fixed action patterns, migration, circadian rhythms
Habituation
Response to alarm decreases over time
Insight Learning
The “aha” moment when solving a problem using past skills
Latent learning
Learned behavior is not expressed until required
Innate Learning
Fixed action patterns that are “hard wired”
Aversive Control
Situations where behavior is motivated by threat of something unpleasant.
Types: escape and avoidance/avoidant learning
Escape
“Get me out of here” response to aversive stimuli. The behavior that produces the escape is negatively reinforced
Avoidance
Signal of behavior is given before an aversive stimulus. The behavior is to avoid the situation, which results in continued avoidance because it is reinforced by removal of the pain/undesirable stimulus.
These behaviors are incredibly persistent even when there is nothing to avoid.
Negative reinforcement in the form of relief. This is actually self-reinforcing behavior
Drive-reduction reinforcement type
Negative
Non-associative Learning
Learning where no punishment/reward is occurring with an increase or decrease in response. The two types: sensitization and habituation
Taste Aversion
A previously enjoyed food that becomes associated with negative experiences and feelings so much so that the person stop enjoying it
Adaptive associations
Those that have a biological advantage - they are learned faster than learning with no biological value
Elaboration likelihood model
Explains how attitudes are formed and likely they are to be changed. The most important characteristics of this model are the Target Chracteristics. Determines when people will be influenced by the content of a speech (central route processing) vs more superficial features (peripheral route).
Three stages fo the elaboration likelihood model
1: Pre-processing stage due to target characteristics (info is filtered by the listener)
2: Processing Stage by message/source
3: Change in attitude
Reciprocal Determinism
The interaction between a person’s behaviors, personal factors, and environment are all determined by one another
Social-Cognitive Theory
View behaviors as being influenced by people’s traits/cognitions and their social context (the interaction between individual and the situation they are in). Developed by Bandura
Tyranny of choice
Too many choices can negatively impact our cognition and behavior. Results: information overload, decision paralysis, and increased regret
Ego depletion
The idea that self-control is a limited resource. If you use a lot of it, it can get used up so that there is less of it to use in future tasks. Self-control is similar to a muscle in that it can be strengthened through exercise, but it can also be fatigued/depleted with overuse
Existential Self
The most basic part of self-concept - the sense of being separate and distinct from others, and awareness that the self is constant throughout life.
Categorical self
Comes one baby realizes they are separate in several different groupings. Age and gender are the first categories that babies learn, then skills and size, and eventually traits, comparisons, and careers
Self-Concept
AKA self-identity - how someone thinks/perceives/evaluates themselves. AKA self-awareness
Carl Rogers
Believed self-concept had 3 different components: self-image, self-esteem, ideal self.
Major supporter of humanistic theory
Social identity theory (has two parts)
Includes personal and social identities (separate).
Personal: Thinhings unique to each person. like personality traits
Social: Includes groups you belong to in the community
Self-esteem vs Self-worth
Esteem = how you think/feel about yourself
Worth = the value you place on your self
“Self-esteem does not work or last without self-worth”
4 Sources to determine if person has strong/weak self-efficacy
- Mastery of experience: strengthens
- Social modeling: seeing others who are similar to ourselves complete the tasks increases self-efficacy
- Social persuasion: hearing others’ encouragement helps overcome self-doubt
- Psychological responses: learning how to minimize stress and control/elevate mood in difficult situations ups self-efficacy
Psychosexual Theory of Development
Freud’s Theory
Believed that most of children’s personality development occurs before age 5. There are five stages, and if one of them is disrupted, then fixation occurs due to due to the concept of libido (a natural energy source that fuels mechanisms of mind). Libido is centered at different parts of the body at different times of development:
Oral, anal, phallic, latent, genital
Psychosocial Development
By Erikson
Believed that development occurred throughout life (not just in childhood like Freud). Assumed that a crisis can occur at each stage of development between the individual and society. There is a virtue associated with each stage (can be used by ego to resolve future conflicts), Failure in certain stage results in reduced ability to move on to further stages or unhealthy personality/sense of self
Sociocultural Development
Put forth by Vygotsky
Focused on social interactions between growing children and interactions with those around them in development of cognition - higher-order learning.
Babies have 4 elementary mental functions: attention, sensation, perception, and memory (AMPS), which get developed into higher mental functions based off a tutor/model/parent/teacher. Child learns through internalization of their observations/instructions
Zone of Prroximal Development
Part of Vygotsky’s Theory of Sociocultural Development
The link between the cognitive zones of “can” and “can’t” do. Most sensitive instruction/guidance should be given here to allow the learner to use the
skills that they already have to develop new skills.
Positive Symptoms of Schizophrenia
Hallucinations, delusions, mania (including decreased need for sleep), confused thoughts, disorganized speech, movement disorders
Kohlberg Moral Development
There are three levels of moral reasoning: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional
Based on cognitive development.
Pre-conventional level of moral reasoning
Part of Kohlberg’s Stages.
Pre-adolescent. Reasoning is based on physical consequences of actions, so one obeys the rules in order to avoid punishment (obedience vs punishment)
Self-interest! Recognize not just one right view by authorities, different individuals have different iew points. Doing what is right for personal gain
Conventional level of moral reasoning
Societal norms/acceptance - Authority is internalized, but not questioned, and reasoning is based on group to which person belongs. Individual is good in order to be seen as good by others. Emphasis on conformity
Law and Order - maintains social order, chlder is aware of wider roles of society and obeying laws
Post-Conventional level of moral reasoning
Higher moral reasoning.
Social contract - Individual becomes aware that even though rules and laws exist for greater good, there are times this law works against interest of particular people
Universal Ethical principle - people develop their own set of moral guidelines. which may or may not fit the law, and principles apply to everyone. Very few few people reach this stage (ex: Ghandi, Mandela, MLKJ)
Andre Meltzoff
Suggested that babies are born with a built-in capacity to imitate others. Published a study on newborns that examined their tendency to imitate facial expressions of the experimenters. Findings support the existence of mirror neurons - one fires when we observe the an action performed by another person.
Culture and socialization
Important contributions of society to our personal development, emphasizes interaction between the people and culture in which we live
George Herbet Mead
Developed the idea of social behaviorism - the mind and self-emerge through the process of communicating with others (beginning of symbolic interactionism). Infants and children are not influenced by others in any way, merely imitate others and focus on themselves. As we grow up, our belief of how others perceive us becomes more important - happens in three stages: preparatory stage, play stage, game stage
Social Reproduction
The perpetuation fo inequalities through social institutions (like educational systems or the economy)
Social stratifciation
The objective social hierarchy in specific societies (according to social group characteristics).
It is a system of ranking individuals and groups within societies into socioeconomic tiers based on factors like wealth, income, race, education, and power.
An Organization
A formal collection of individuals joining together to coordinate their interactions toward a specific purpose
T/F: Creation of laws is an organizational change
False - a legal change in which norms are being formalised into laws goes beyond the level of organizational change
Organizational change
An alteration in the structure of a formal organization
Mead’s Definition of “I”
The spontaneous, autonomous, less socialized part of the unified self.
It is the response of the self to the “me.”
The non-conforming, non-socialized part of the self who “makes dIck moves all the time”
Mead’s Definition of “me”
The social self that conforms due to interactions with others and the environment.
This part of the self tries not to make any dick moves
Actual Self
The balance of the “I” and “me” according to Mead.
Social Constructionism
The perspective that focuses on how knowledge and experiences are not real, but exist because individuals and society give them meaning
Where in the structure of the eyeball has the greatest density of rods?
The periphery of the retina
Cultural Relativism
The belief that there are no “right” or “wrong” cultural practices. It is inclusive of cultural differences
Master Status
One’s dominant social position
Achieved Status
One that is attained through successes and failures. Includes occupation/student status
Assigned/Ascribed Status
Status assigned from birth, you cannot change it. e.g. race, family origins
Intersectionality
Describes how all individuals hold multiple, interconnected identities that simultaneously impact their lives and perspectives.
Ex: gender pay gap exemplifies how the inequality in pay between female and male workers is related to both gender and age
Rational Choice/Social Exchange Theory
People act to minimize loss and maximize gain
The Nativist Hypothesis
Sometimes called the biological theory. States that humans have an innate ability to speak and use language.
Linguistic relativity
The structure of a language affects the ways in which its respective speakers conceptualize their worldview or otherwise influence their cognitive processes. Similar to linguistic determinism
Linguistic determinism
The idea that language and its structure limit and determine human knowledge or thought, categorization, memory, and perception
Whorf-Sapir hypothesis
People from different cultures think differently because of differences in their languages
Role Strain
The tension that results from competing demands within the context of a single social role. Different demands go along with contrasting expectations of a certain individual
Role Conflict
When a person experiences stress or tension from having to manage the social responsibilities of two or more social roles
Ethnographic Models
Research methodology that involves the extended systematic observation of a complete social environment
Confounding variable
Uncontrolled variables that have an effect on the independent and/or dependent variables.
Halo Effect
An attributional error resulting when an individual with a positive quality, like physical attractiveness, is assumed to have other positive qualities, like warmth or intelligence.
Game theory
The study of how beings can cooperate with each other and use strategies for their own reason, whether for personal gain or altruism. Examines conscious decision making
Match each of the five senses with the key receptor type
Taste: Chemoreceptors
Smell: Chemoreceptors
Touch: Mechanoreceptors
Vision: Photoreceptors
Audition: Mechanoreceptors
Dependency Ratio
Ratio of the number of dependent individuals in a society to the number of individuals that support them
DR = (economically dependent) / (economically productive)
= # <14 or >65 / # between 15-64
Source Monitoring Error
An error in which the source of a particular piece of information is incorrectly attributed to some specific recollected experience
Functionalism
Macro-sociological view that looks at society as a whole and how institutions that make up the society adapt to keep society stable and functioning.
Society is an organism, and each part of the organism must contribute to maintain equilibrium
Conflict Theory
Macro-sociological view in which the ideal society is made of institutions that benefit powerful and create inequalities. Large groups are at ods until conflict is resolved.
Society = a struggle for limited resources. Inequalities are based on social divisions
Based on the ideal of Karl Marx who believed that society evolved: feudalism→capitalism→socialism
Symbolic Interactionism
Micro-sociological perspective that focuses on the individual and the significance they give to objects, events, symbols, and everything else in their lives.
Evolutionary Game Theory
Those with the best fit to the environment will survive and pass on genes to offspring. Those genes will become more common in successive generations
Looking glass self
Charles Cooley developed this idea that a person’s sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others. Develops from interactions with others based on three steps: (1) How do I appear to others, (2) What must others think of me? And (3), Revise how I think about myself
Kelley’s Co-variation Model
Attribution depends on 3 cues: consistency (time), distinctiveness (situation), and consensus (people).
High consistency → Internal attribution
Distinctiveness → Situational attribution
High degree of consensus → Situational attribution
Optimism bias
The belief that bad things happen to others, but no to us
Stereotyping
Attributing a certain thought/cognition to a group of individuals, and overgeneralizing
Stereotype Threat
Self-fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.
Ex: women performing worse on a math test after being told that males are superior at math compared to women who are not told this
Prejudice
A positive or negative evaluation of another person based on their perceived group membership.
3 components: Cognition (stereotype), affect (emotional component), and discrimination (behavior).
THINK: ABC = Affect, Behavior, Cognition (no particular order)
Aggression is directed toward Scapegoats
Scapegoats
Group of people towards whom prejudice-based aggression is targeted
Ex: Jews in WWII
Frustration Aggression Hypothesis
Not personality-based, rather, emotional.
Someone getting frustrated can lead to prejudice. Frustrations turn into aggressive impulses, which should be directed to their source. However, if the source is someone like a boss at work, then aggressions will be directed elsewhere (often towards minorities)
Hypothesis of Relative Deprivation
Upsurge in prejudice/discrimination when people are deprived of something they feel entitled to
Social stigma
Extreme disapproval/discrediting of individual by society, fuelled or associated stereotypes, prejudices, and/or discrimination.
Social stigma against mental health (stereotyping the mentally ill as violent, so people are afraid, and do not hire or interact with them)
Self-stigma
When an individual internalizes all the negative stereotypes, prejudices, and discriminatory experiences they’ve had, and begin to feel rejected by society and avoid interaction with society
First Impressions
Lasting, strong, and easily built upon.
More important than later data due to the primacy bias
Recency Bias
Your later actions are more important in peers’ judgments of you than previous actions
Just-World Hypothesis
Predictable result as a consequence of our actions.
Good deeds are rewarded, evil acts are punished
Xenocentrism
Judging another culture as superior to one’s own culture
Cultural imperialism
The deliberate imposition of one’s own cultural values on another culture
Mere Exposure Effect
Repeated exposure to novel people or objects increases our liking for them. The more often we see something, the more often we like it. Applies to everything (music, nonsense syllables, numbers, objects, etc.)
Similarity bias
Implies that we will not befriend people that are different from us
Projection bias
We assume that others share the same beliefs as us
False consensus
When we assume everyone else agrees with what we do, even if they do not
Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation
Goal: To determine why some babies have stranger anxiety and some do not.
Put mother and baby in a room with a stranger and allowed baby to explore without interaction of either adult. Examined response to baby when mother left the room and then when they came back. 60% had secure attachment and 40% insecure
Secure attachment
Baby is distressed by mother leaving the room, and is then happy when she comes back
Caused by sensitive/responsive parenting style
Insecure attachment
Baby is upset my mother leaving the room and is then not comforted by her return.
OR baby is indifferent to her leaving the room and coming back.
Caused by insenseitive/unresponsive parenting style
Authoritarian Parenting
Very strict, the break will of child. Punishment-heavy.
Authoritative parenting
BEST:) Strict, consistent, and loving, but more pragmatic and issue-oriented and listen to children’s arguments. They balance responsibility with the rights of the child
Permissive/Indulgent Parenting
Non-directive and lenient. Few behavioral expectations for the child
Testosterone and Aggression
Higher in men, which partly explains why men are more aggressive than women as a whole
Frustration-aggression principle
The idea that frustration creates anger which can spark aggression
Reinforcement-modeling
Can lead to aggression through positive reinforcement. Parents who give into the demands of a child who is throwing a tantrum will lead to more tantrums in the future. Also, child will pick up on the event of a parent hitting/yelling at the other parent and then not getting punished for it → they learn through observation that this is okay
Socio-cultural Factor of Aggression
People act more aggressively in groups due to de-individuation
Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis
Suggests that some people are more altruistic due to empathy.
High empathy = high altruism
Primary Groups
Closest members of the group to you. Close, intimate, long-term relationships. Strong, lasting ties
In-group
The group you are affiliated with based on identification - can be ethnicity, nationality, gender, religion, etc.
(Different from primary group because you do not know everyone in your in-group)
Secondary groups
Formal, impersonal, temporary, and business-like relationships. May be based on a limited purpose or goal.
Dramaturgical Approach
The metaphor of theater to understand social interactions
Involves the concepts of front stage self, backstage self, impression management, and communication
Impression Management
Our attempt to control how others see us on the front stage. We adjust in order to be viewed in a positive way. You work on impression management in the backstage
Social Discrimination
Differential treatment and harmful actions against minorities. Can be based on different factors and can occur at the individual OR organizational/institutional levels
Past-in-Present Discrimination
How things don in the past, even if they are no longer allowed they can still have consequences for people in the present
Utilitarian Organizations
Members are paid/rewarded for their efforts. Ex: Businesses, governments, university (jobs and diplomas)
Normative Organizations
Members come together through shared goals. Positive sense of unity and purpose
Ex: Religions, Mothers Against Drunk Driving
Coercive Organizations
Members don’t have a choice about membership. Usually highly structured and have very strict rules.
Ex: Prison, military
Bureaucratization
Process by which organization become increasingly governed by laws and policy
Ex: Customer service, now you have to move through 12 menu options before reaching someone to help you
McDonaldization
Policies of fast-food organizations have come to dominate other organizations in society - Principles of efficiency, calculability, predictability, uniformity, and control
Max Weber’s 5 Main Characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy
- Division of labor
- Hierarchy of organization
- Written rules and regulations
- Impersonality
- Employment based on technical qualifications
Peter Principle
Every employee in hierarchy keeps getting promoted until they reach level of incompetence (meaning they lack the knowledge or skills to go any higher)
Antrhopomorphism
Attributing human characteristics to non-human animals.
Ex: You assume that your dog lies next to you because they love you, but really it may just be because they want your body heat
Random Mating
All individuals within a species are equally likely to mate with each other. Mating is not influenced by environment/heredity or any behavioral/social limitation. Ensures a large amount of genetic diversity.
Assortive mating
Non-random mating where individuals with certain phenotypes/genotypes/similarities/genes/physical appearance tend to mate with each other at higher frequency
Dis-assortative (Non-assortative) Mating
Individuals with different characteristics are more likely to mate with each other than with those similar to them
Inclusive Fitness
Concerns the number of offspring an animal has, how they support them, and how the offspring support each other. Looks at fitness on a larger scale and considers the evolutionary advantage
Evolutionary Game Theory
Those with best-fit strategies and behaviors for the environment will survive and pass on these habits to their offspring. Such strategies/behaviors may NOT be conscious
Hidden Curriculum
In school, this involves how we are taught to stand in line, wait our turn, and treat our peers.
Ecclesia
Dominant religious organization that includes most members of a society
Ex: Lutheranism in Sweden, Islam in Iran
Fundamentalism
Reaction to secularization (weakening social and political power of religion), goes back to strict religious beliefs. Creates social problems when people become too extreme
Social epidemiology
Looks at health disparities through social indicators like race, gender, and income distribution, and how social factors affect a person’s health
Focuses on the contribution of social and cultural factors to disease patterns in populations, emphasizes how social factors affect the distribution of disease and health
Ludwig Gumplowicz
Conflict theorists who expanded on Marx’s ideas by proposing that society is shaped by war/conquest, and cultural/ethnic conflicts lead to certain groups becoming dominant over others
Social Constructionism
Macro or micro view of society. Argues that people actively shape their reality through social interactions/agreement - it’s something constructed, not inherent. Things are social products made of the values of the society that created it.
Social Construct
A concept/practice everyone in society agrees to treat a certain way regardless of its inherent value
Ex: Money, knowledge (books), the self (identity)
Feminist Theory
Macro-perspective of society. Looks beyond the more common male-based perspective to focus on gender inequalities in society.
Women face discrimination, objectification, oppression, and sterotyping
Rational Choice Theory
People act in self-interest, driven by personal desires and motivated by goals. They act in ways that will maximize gain and minimize loss
Exchange Theory / Exchange-Rational Choice Theory
Application of rational choice theory to social interactions. Addresses decision-making via const-benefit analyses. Looks at society as a series of interactions between individuals
Social selection
Idea that an individual’s health can influence their social mobility
Greatest generation
1901-1924 - oldest people alive today. Born in first quarter fo the 20th century
Silent generation
Born 1925-1945. Born during the great depression
Baby Boomers
Born 1946-1964. Large population in the US. Grew up in post-WWII periods, currently leaving the workforce (which is opening jobs for younger people), also becoming reliant on families for support depending on financial status
Generation X
Born 1965-1980.
Millennials
Born 1980s-2000s. AKA Generation Y
Generation Z
Born 1995-2003.
Always-On Generation
Born 2004 and later
Life Course Theory
Aging is a social, psychological, and biological process that beginsfrom the time you are born to the time you die.
Age Stratification Theory
Suggests age is a way of regulating behavior or a generation
Activity Theory
Looks at how older generation looks at themselves. Certain activities or jobs lost, those social interactions need to be replaced so elderly can be engaged and maintain moral/well-being
Disengagement Theory
Older adults and society separate, assumes they become more self-absorbed as they age. Separation allows for self-reflection. But considers elderly people still involved in society as not adjusting well, which is debatable.
Continuity Theory
People try to maintain same basic structure throughout their lives over time. As they age, people make decisions that preserve that structure and use it to adapt to external changes and internal changes of aging
Race
A socially defined category based on physical differences between groups of people
Ethnicity
Socially defined, ut not defined by physical characteristics (like race). These groups share language, religion, nationality, history, or some other cultural factor. Less statistically defined than racial groups and definitions can change over time
Population transfer
Group is forcefully moved from territory
Inter-colonialism
Minority groups are segregated and exploited
Pluralism
Def: A condition or system in which two or more states, groups, principles, sources of authority coexist
Encourages racial and ethnic variation
Gender
Main components: Identity and Expression
One’s identity in terms of behaviors, roles, activities in society. One’s own choice.
Asocial construction theory states that gender is not a fixed or innate fact
Fornification
Gender that one is sexually attracted to
Gender queer
One who does not identify as either male or female
Agender
Rejecting gender categories
Gender fluid
Moving across genders
Non-binary
Not identifying with any specific gender
Third gender
Cultures that recognize non-binary gender
Gender Role vs Gender Norm
Role: a set of societal norms dictating what types of behaviors are generally considered appropriate for a person based on their actual/perceived sex
Norms: Learned from birth through childhood socialization. Ways that are expected of our gender (ex: girls like pink)
Racialization
Racial identity asci=ribed to a minority group
Statistical differences between racial ad ethnic group
Racial and ethnic groups have bigger families, less access to healthcare, higher incarceration rates, lower-paying jobs, and high school dropout rates
Most differences are due to educational differences
Gender Schema Theory
Explains how individuals should be gendered in society, how sex-linked characteristics are maintained and transmitted to other members of a culture. What constitutes male/female characteristics and how stereotypes become ingrained in society.
AKA: Cognitions regarding what constitutes a sex identity
Gender script
What we expect males and females to do. Organized information regarding the order of actions that are approximate to a familiar situation
Demographic requirement of “rural”
Anywhere with less than 1000 people per square mile. Has to have less than 25,000 residents
How many people, minimum, in a city?
Metropolis?
Megalopolis?
City: 50,000
Metropolis: 500,000
Megalopolis: Connection of metrolpolises
Cosmopolites
City-dwellers that were drawn to the city due to cultural benefits and convenience.
Ex: students, artists, entertainment, intellectuals
Urban Decline
People move out of city centers, causing the city to fall into disrepair (abandoned buildings, unemployment and crime rise, population declines
Urban renewal
Revamping old parts of cities to become better. But can lead to gentrification (targeted at wealthy)
Gentrification
Urban renewal with the purpose of drawing in a wealthier group of people. Makes it so that poorer people can no longer afford to live there and must leave.
Rural rebound
People getting sick of cities and moving back out to rural areas (people who can afford to leave the city and and look for simpler/slower life)
Ghettoes
Areas where specific racial, ethnic, or religious minorities are concentrated, usually due to social or economic inequality
Fecundity
The potential reproductive capacity of a female
Population Pyramid
Graphs the age and sex distribution of a population. Males and females on x-axis, increasing age on y-axis
Equation for current population
Initial pop + births - deaths + immigrating - emigrating
Demographic transition
Models changes in a country’s population growth/fall.
Population will eventually stop growing when country transitions from high birth/death rates to low birth/death rates.
5 stages
Five stages of the Demographic transition model
- High birth rates due to limited birth control, but also high death rates – Population remains relatively stable
- Population rises as death rate decreases – Population rises
- Death rates continue to drop and birth rates begin to fall – Population continues to grow
- Population stabilizes – both birth and death rates are low and balance each other out
- Speculation: World population will be forced to stabliize
Group Identification
The extent to which one identifies themself as part of a larger collective
Social Identity
Describes how one’s self-concept is shaped by group membership. Defines individual in relation to society. Defined by society
Flashbulb Memory
Memories that are especially vivid, memorable, and more likely to be remembered with greater detail due to strong emotional associations
Reproductive Memory
A type of idealized memory where we recall info exactly the way it occurred. This is very unusual because our recall memory of events is often flawed by intrusions (memory is reconstructive)
Somatic Symptom Disorder
Psychologically constructed distress/disability symptoms similar to those that may occur with non-mental illnesses. May or may not have a general medical condition at the same time
Malthusian Theorem
Suggests that we will run out of resources, there will be a global food shortage. We won’t be able to maintain natural resources for everyone on the planet
World-Systems Theory
Importance of world as a unit rather than individual countries. Divides world into 3 counties: core, periphery, and semi-periphery
Skeptical Perspective (of globalization)
Criticizes globalization, considers it as being regional instead of global. Third world countries are not being integrated into global economy with the same benefits as first world countries. Current economy is not leading towards global capitalism.
Transformationalist Perspective
No specific cause or outcome. Believes in the fact that world order is changing, not in one particular way, just that a new order is being developed
Social movement
Requires organization, leadership, and resources to gain momentum to make their desired social impact. A small group with an idea is not a social movement
Mass Society Theory
Skepticism about groups that were involved in social movements → said social movements would only form for people seeking refuge from main society. People who joined such movements were dysfunctional, irrational, and dangerous. Theory did not persist.
Ex: Nazism, Fascism, Stalinism
Relative Deprivation Theory
Movements are started by groups that are oppressed/deprived of rights that others in society enjoy.
Ex: Civil Rights Movement in US
Resource Motivation Theory
Focuses on factors that help/hinder a social movement, like access to resources, money, political influence, media, and strength of organizational base to recruit members
Rational Choice Theory
People compare the pros and cons of different courses of action and choose the one they think is best for themselves
Definitions of Culture vs. Society
Culture = Rules that guide the way people live
Society = Structure that provides organization for people
Society requires ideas from human ideas from culture in order to work
High culture
Patterns of experiences and attitudes that exist in the highest class segments of a society. Tends to be associated with wealth and formality
Normative culture
Refers to values and behaviors that are in line with larger societal norms (like avoidance of crime)
Sub-culture vs micro-culture
Sub-cultures are smaller than a nation but are large enough the support people throughout their entire lifespan. In contrast, micro-cultures cannot support people throughout their entire lifespan (these are groups/organizations that affect a limited portion of one’s life, e.g. Girl Scouts)
Counterculture
Form of sub-culture that rejects some of the larger culture’s norms and value, usually develop and live by their own set of norms
Mass Media
Dissemination of info and how info is transmitted within a culture. Includes print media and digital media.
Tokenism
The practice of completing an act (like hiring someone who belongs to a minority group) only to prevent criticism and give the appearance that people are being treated fairly
Cultural Universals
All cultures have ways of dealing with specific events like illness, medicine, healing, weddings, funerals, languages
Glass ceiling effect
Females being poorly represented in higher positions in companies
Meritocracy
Concept that people achieve social position solely based on ability and achievements. Highly idealized. Extreme social mobility. Equal opportunity
Absolute Poverty
An absolute level below which one’s survival is threatened. Minimum level of resources a human being needs to survive. Applies to all humans in all countries.
Approx $1-2 per day
Relative Poverty
Developed countries’ poverty line. A percent level below the median income of the country.
Ex: in the US, approx $80 per day
Social Reproduction
Offspring winding up in the same social class/SES as their parents
Environmental Justice
Looks at the fair distribution of the environmental benefits and burden within society across all groups
Forms of Segregation
Residential, concentration, centralization
Index of disimilarity
Measurement of segregation.
0 = total segregation
100 = perfect distribution
Spatial Mismatch
Opportunities for low-income people in segregated communities may be present but farther away and harder to access.
There is a clear gap between where people live and where opportunities are
Class consciousness
Workers can develop class consciousness and realize they have solidarity with one another and struggle to overcome this oppression and exploitation
Poverty Magnet
Can drag people away from the core part of society, and experience a greater degree of social exclusion
Ill health magnet
Drags people away from core society so that they cannot participate is society
Discrimination magnet
Factor of social exclusion that involves discrimination based on a group/person’s race/gender/sexual orientation etc.
Social isolation
Community voluntarily isolates itself from mainstream based on their own religious/cultural/other beliefs
Three by Tow factorial design study
Study in which we have three levels of the first variable crossed with two levels of the second variable. There are 6 total treatment conditions in the experiment
validity
Extend to which causal conclusion based on a study is warrantd. Confounding factors often impact the internal validity of an experiment
External validity
Whether results of the study can be generalized to other situations and other people.
For best external validity, sample must be completely random and all situational variables must be tightly controlled
Population validity
Type of external validity which describes how well the sample used can be extrapolated to a population as a whole. Generalizability.
Ecological validity
Ecological validity is a type of external validity which looks at the testing environment and determines how much it influences behavior
Concurrent validity
Measures the test against a benchmark test, and a high correlation indicates that the test has a strong criterion validity
Predictive Validity
Measure of how well a test predicts abilities. Involves testing a group of subjects for a certain construct and them comparing them with results obtained at some point in the future
Criterion Validity
Assesses whether a test reflects a certain set of abilities. “IS the test valid” - Refers to whether a variable is able to predict a certain outcome
Construct Validity
Describes the extent to which the theory is supported by the data or results of the research. “Does the test have results that are supported by what is expected?”
How the terms are defined
Convergent validity
Tests whether constructs that are expected to be related are, in fact related
Discriminant validity
Tests whether constructs that should have no relationship do, in fact, not have any relationship
Content validity
The extent that the test measures the construct accurately. The estimate of how much a measure represents every single element of a construct. Content validity measures the entire construct fully.
“Does the test measure what its supposed to?”
Face validity
Measure of how representative a research project is ‘at face value’
The degree to which a lay person who takes a cursory look at an experiment agrees than an experimenter is measuring what they say they intend to
Confounding variables
Changes in dependent variable may be due to existence of or variations in a third variable
Temporal confounds
Time related confounding variables
Vehicular control
What experimental group does without the directly desired impact
Type I Error
False positive
Type II error
False negative
Bias
Failure to be objective
Normalcy Bias
Causes people to underestimate both the possibility of a disaster occurring and its possible effects
Reconstructive Bias
Related to memory and how our memories are really not as accurate as we may think, especially when we are remembering times of high stress
Attrition bias
When participants drop out of a long-term experiment or study
Selection bias
Related to how people are chose to participate in a study
Subjective bias
Self-reported info is always vulnerable to subjective bias
Implicit bias
Refers to the attitudes or stereotypes that affect an individual’s understanding, actions, and decisions in an unconscious manner
Cognitive Bias
Tendency to think in certain ways. Often cause deviations from a standard of rationality or good judgment
Operationalization
The process of strictly defining variables into measurable factors. The process defines fuzzy concepts and allows them to be measured, empirically and quantitatively. Allows for the establishment of a causal relationship between variables. You want to manipulate the variable at varying levels for this to occur
Embedded field study
When researchers pose as participants
Sampling bias
In statistics, a bias in which a sample is collected in such a way that some members of the intended population are less likely to be included than others. It results in a biased sample
Antecedent Predisposition
A stimulus that cues an organism to perform a learned behavior
Prosopagnosia
Neurological disorder characterized by the inability to recognize familiar people’s faces
Neuroleptics
Drugs that decrease positive symptoms of schizophrenia but an increase negative symptoms
Incongruence (Rogers)
The gap between the ideal self and the actual self. Can cause unpleasant feelings, feelings of discomfort
