PSYCH RESEARCH METHODS

Question 1

what must a hypothesis include?

Answer 1

The Population that the hypothesis will apply to
Both levels of the Independent Variable
The Dependant Variable
A specific prediction about what will occur

Question 2

what is the IV?

Answer 2

The independent variable (IV) is the variable that is systematically manipulated or changed in some way by the researcher in order to measure its effect on the dependent variable

Question 3

what is the DV?

Answer 3

The dependent variable (DV) is the variable that is used to observe and measure the effects of the independent variable.

Question 4

what is operationalising?

Answer 4

Operationalising the independent and dependent variables involves defining and explaining them in terms of the specific procedures (‘operations’) used to measure them in a particular experiment.
Stating how the IV and DV will be defined and measured

Question 5

what are extraneous variables?

Answer 5

An extraneous variable is any variable other than the IV that can cause a change in the DV and therefore affect the validity (‘accuracy’) of the results of the experiment in an unwanted way.

Question 6

what are confounding variables?

Answer 6

A confounding variable is a variable other than the IV that has had an unwanted effect on the DV, making it impossible to determine which of the variables has produced the predicted change in the DV

Question 7

what are potential EVs and CVs?

Answer 7

participant differences, non standardised instructions and procedures, order effects, experimenter effects, placebo effects

Question 8

what is random sampling?

Answer 8

Random sampling is where every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample being used in the study.
eg. pulling names from a hat

Question 9

what are two strengths of random sampling?

Answer 9

Quick(er than stratified), relatively simple to employ

Less chance of bias. Likelihood that the sample is representative of the population is increased, and so is the ability of the researcher to generalise the results to the population.

Question 10

what is a limitation of random sampling?

Answer 10

Can be open to bias if the population has over or underrepresented groups in it.

Question 11

what is convenience sampling?

Answer 11

Convenience sampling is when subjects are picked based on their availability at the time of the experiment.
There is no attempt to make the sample representative of a population.

Question 12

what are three strengths of convenience sampling?

Answer 12

Participants are readily available, so it tends to be quick (time-efficient), simple and inexpensive compared to other sampling procedures

can also be of considerable value to identify possible trends or patterns in results or when conducting research to pilot, or ‘test’, procedures or to gain a preliminary indication of possible responses before conducting the actual study.

an adequate sampling procedure when investigating aspects of mental processes or behaviour that are assumed to be similar in all ‘normal’ individuals, despite individual differences.

Question 13

what are two limitations of convenience sampling?

Answer 13

produces a biased sample because only those people present and available at the time and location of the study will have a chance of being included in the sample.

The data obtained can be misleading and the results of the study cannot be legitimately generalised to the entire population.

Question 14

what is stratified sampling?

Answer 14

Involves dividing the population to be sampled into distinct subgroups (called strata), then selecting a separate sample from each subgroup (stratum), usually in the same proportions as they occur in the target population.

Once the population is divided into strata, participants are selected for the sample in the same proportions (ratios, percentages) that exist in the population.

Question 14

what are two strengths of stratified sampling?

Answer 14

Ensures that the sample is highly representative of the population and therefore is not biased in a way you consider to be important, which means that there can be greater precision in the study.

enables the researcher to sample specific groups (strata) within populations for comparison purposes

Question 15

what are two limitations of stratified sampling?

Answer 15

It can be carried out only if relatively complete lists of the target populations (strata) are available and accessible.

Can be a very time-consuming procedure, more so than standard random sampling.

Question 16

what is random allocation?

Answer 16

Random allocation is a procedure used to place participants in groups or conditions so that they are as likely to be in one group as the other. This means that every participant has an equal chance of being selected for any of the groups to be used.

Question 17

what is counter balancing?

Answer 17

Counterbalancing is used to control for the order effects, such as practice and carry over in a repeated measures design.
Counterbalancing involves systematically changing the order of treatments or tasks for participants in a ‘balanced’ way to ‘counter’ the unwanted effects on performance of any one order.

The procedure involves alternating the order in which the experimental and control groups are exposed to each condition of the experiment. Each group is exposed to each condition in a different order.

Question 18

what is a single blind procedure?

Answer 18

A single-blind procedure is where participants do not know which group they have been assigned to (experimental or control groups).
Used to control for participant expectations ie. placebo effects.

In some experiments the participants may know which condition they are in and one or more researchers do not. For example, a researcher conducting a vital data collection, recording or assessment procedure may intentionally be kept unaware of the condition to which participants are allocated in order to avoid bias or some other ‘experimenter effect’

Question 19

what is a double blind procedure?

Answer 19

A double blind procedure is when the participants and the experimenter both do not know which group they have been assigned to. Only the researcher(s) removed from the actual research situation knows which participants are in which condition (or groups).
Used to control for experimenter effects and participant expectations
standard practice in drug trials

Question 20

what is a placebo in minimising EVs ?

Answer 20

A placebo is a fake or false (non-effective) treatment. This is given to the control group. Neither group would know which treatment they receive. (see single and double blind procedures)
This means that participant expectations will be less able to influence results

Question 21

what is standardised instructions?

Answer 21

The use of standardised instructions means that the directions and explanations given to all participants in each condition are predetermined and identical in terms of what they state and how they are administered. They should be clear and avoid jargon, and there should be no ambiguities or variations for individual participants.

A key purpose of using standardised instructions is to have all participants perform the intended task in the same way to avoid introducing potential extraneous variables that make the task inconsistent or different for different participants.

Question 22

what is standardised procedures?

Answer 22

the techniques used for making observations and measuring and recording responses should be identical for all individual participants. All participants should be treated in the same way, as appropriate to the experimental condition to which they have been assigned (e.g. experimental or control group).

A key purpose of using standardised procedures is to ensure that all participants are exposed to the same environment and procedures, with the only exception being exposure to the independent variable

Question 23

what is independent groups?

Answer 23

Participants in the sample are randomly allocated to and have an equal chance of being into either a control group or experimental group.

Use when the experiment does not require particular participant variables to be controlled (ie intelligence or memory ability will not impact on results) and when you can easily access large numbers of participants, to quickly set up and administer the experiment.

Question 24

what are three strengths of independent groups?

Answer 24

Use of different participants in each condition means there is no order effects to control

Use of different participants in each condition means that the time required to complete the study is often shorter, as two conditions can be conducted at one time.

Use of different participants in each condition means that there is less chance of attrition or drop outs, compared with the repeated measures design.

Question 25

what are two limitations of independent groups?

Answer 25

May not be a representative sample of the population as no individual participant differences between the two groups have been controlled for. Does not control for potential extraneous variables that could arise from participant differences.

Above is particularly evident if there is a small sample size, so a disadvantage would be that this design requires more individuals to be used in order to reduce bias from uncontrolled participant variables.

Question 26

what is repeated measures?

Answer 26

Repeated measures is when each member of the sample participates in both the experimental and control conditions.
Each participant is in both the experimental and control groups (and therefore all conditions). The groups are identical so individual participant differences that may impact on the DV are controlled.

Question 27

what are two strengths of repeated measures?

Answer 27

Controls potential confounding variables arising from individual participant differences, because it uses the same participants in all conditions.

Requires a relatively smaller number of participants compared with other experimental designs, as each participant acts in both the control and experimental groups

Question 28

what are two limitations of repeated measures?

Answer 28

Order effects may occur from the participant taking part in the first condition and then the second condition. Performance on the second task may be enhanced or due to practise. Performance may be decreased on the second task due to fatigue or boredom.

Repeating the conditions with the same participants takes time. This means that it takes a lot longer for researchers to gather all data. Participants may be more likely to drop out between testing times. This means all of their results would then be removed

Question 29

what is matched participants?

Answer 29

After pre-testing, participants are paired together based on their similarity to a certain characteristic researcher wishes to control for. One from each pair is assigned to control and other to the experimental group.

Question 30

what are three strengths of matched participants?

Answer 30

Participant variables are more constant across conditions, controlling this as possible confounding variables.

Use of different participants in each condition means that the time required to complete the study is often shorter, as two conditions can be conducted at one time

Use of different participants in each condition which may be conducted at the same time, means that there is less chance of attrition or drop outs, compared with the repeated measures design.

Question 31

what are three limitations of matched participants?

Answer 31

Matching participants on all characteristics is unlikely to be able to occur. People still have individual differences. Defining the characteristic properly is also difficult.

Matching participants is time consuming and costly. Twins are best for this as they have the most characteristics in common; however twins are uncommonly available in large numbers.

Pre-testing may create an order effect or an expectation from the participants

Question 32

what are cross sectional studies?

Answer 32

A cross-sectional study selects and compares different groups of participants on one or more variables of interest at a single point in time.
often used to study age-related differences. For example, a study might investigate how performance on a memory task can vary according to age.

Question 33

what are two strengths of cross sectional studies?

Answer 33

Can be used to study change over time.

Provides a means of conducting research on certain topics that are unethical and/or impractical to conduct through experimentation

Question 34

what are two limitations of cross sectional studies?

Answer 34

Cause-effect relationships between different variables cannot be tested or determined.

Cohort effect; occurs when the researcher measures characteristics in groups of people (‘cohorts’) born at significantly different times and members of each group share life experiences associated with the period and/or place in which they grew up.

Question 35

what are case studies?

Answer 35

A case study is an intensive, in-depth investigation of some behaviour or event of interest in an individual, small group, organisation or situation. Usually, the case is a person. It may involve the ‘normal’ or ‘abnormal’ behaviour or functioning of an individual.

Question 36

what are three strengths of case studies?

Answer 36

useful way of obtaining detailed and valuable information on mental processes and behaviour, particularly in relation to rare or unusual disorders.

Avoid artificiality and provide a ‘snapshot’ of the actual or real-life experience of one or more individuals at a particular time in a particular situation.

A valuable source of hypotheses for further research.

Question 37

what are three limitations of case studies?

Answer 37

Case studies, however, cannot be replicated to test the reliability of the results in the way that an experiment can.

Nor can they be used to actually test hypotheses unless combined with the results of other case studies of similar participants or used with another research method that is suitable for testing hypotheses.

detailed and comprehensive data usually obtained, the process of analysing, summarising and reporting these data can be painstaking and time-consuming.

Question 38

what are longitudinal studies?

Answer 38

A longitudinal study tracks the same group (or groups) of people over an extended period of time, observing changes that occur in behaviour and/or mental processes at several points in time

Question 39

what are two strengths of longitudinal studies?

Answer 39

A lot of detailed data can be collected about individuals over a long period of time.

Data about long-term change can be collected whilst minimising individual differences between participants, as it is the same participants that are followed up over the period of the study.

Question 40

what are three limitations of longitudinal studies?

Answer 40

can be expensive and take a long time to get results. Keeping in touch with the same group over a period of time can also be difficult.

Participants may lose interest in the study, move to another location where they are unable to be contacted, or even die. High level of attrition

Many extraneous variables are more difficult to control over the long period of the study.

Question 41

what are observational studies?

Answer 41

An observational study involves collecting data by carefully watching and recording behaviour as it occurs. Psychologists use observational studies to collect data when the behaviour under investigation is clearly visible and can be easily recorded.

Question 42

what are two strengths of observational studies?

Answer 42

Observational studies can allow researchers to collect data in a naturalistic setting so that the behaviours they observe are more representative of what would occur, rather than in a controlled experimental setting.

Observational studies can also occur in controlled, laboratory settings, allowing the researcher to have an active involvement in the conditions of the setting and the procedures involved.

Question 43

what are two limitations of observational studies?

Answer 43

It is difficult for researchers to establish a causal relationship between variables, because they are unable to intervene to manipulate variables.

The interpretation and recording of data is subjective and therefore prone to experimenter bias.

Question 44

what are self reports?

Answer 44

Self-report methodologies involve participants providing their own account of an experience. Therefore the data collected is subjective. Self-report data can be collected through a variety of means, including questionnaires, interviews and rating scales.

Question 45

what are questionnaires?

Answer 45

A questionnaire is a written set of questions designed to draw out self-report information from people on a topic of research interest. It has a structured format and the questions are usually answered by participants in writing, at their own pace and without supervision.

Questionnaires are most often used when responses are required from a large number of participants; for example, as part of a survey. They are an efficient way of collecting self-reports because a researcher can administer the questionnaire via surface mail, over the phone, the internet

Question 46

What are interviews?

Answer 46

An interview usually involves questions that are asked by the researcher with the aim of obtaining self-report information on a topic of research interest. How questions are asked and the categories of response are focused but not necessarily predetermined or fixed.

Interviews are most often conducted with individuals, in a face-to-face meeting or sometimes over the phone, or even through an app like Facetime or Skype. They usually require spoken answers to questions and are rarely used with very large samples as data collection would require a considerable amount of time.

Question 47

what are rating scales?

Answer 47

A rating scale uses fixed-response questions or statements for which participants rank (‘rate’) each item by selecting from a number of choices. They may be used to collect data on any behaviour or mental process about which a participant can provide information.

Responses are typically assigned numerical values that enable answers to be quantified (converted to numbers) for summary, analysis and interpretation. The rating scale is not unlike a multiple choice test, but the answer options represent levels or degrees of a particular characteristic

Question 48

what are two strengths of self reports?

Answer 48

Self-reports are useful as some behaviours and opinions cannot be directly observed.

Participant accounts of these through a self-report can allow researchers to obtain data they otherwise couldn’t access.

Question 49

what are two limitations of self reports?

Answer 49

The data collected is subjective data, which can be difficult to compare and analyse.

People don’t always provide accurate responses. They may instead respond with what they think researchers would want, and so the validity of responses is difficult to establish

Question 50

what are two strengths of questionnaires?

Answer 50

Questionnaires can often be completed in a short time frame and can be administered in large numbers.

Lots of data can be collected and can be easily compared between participants.

Question 51

what is a limitation of questionnaires?

Answer 51

The data collected may not be as detailed as other forms of investigation, such as in an interview, especially if closed questions are used.

Question 52

what are two strengths of interviews?

Answer 52

Researchers can obtain lots of qualitative data as responses are open.

They can change/adapt questions as they go, dependent on the participants’ responses, allowing for a more holistic understanding of the participants’ experience.

Question 53

what are two limitations of interviews?

Answer 53

Interviews can be time-consuming and costly to conduct for large samples.

It is difficult to ensure standardised procedures for each participant, especially if there are multiple interviewers, and as such errors in the data collected can make it difficult to compare across participants.

Question 54

what is a strength of rating scales?

Answer 54

Fixed responses on rating scales means that the data collected can be easily measured and compared.

Question 55

what is a limitation of rating scales?

Answer 55

Without qualitative data in participants’ self-report, it is difficult for researchers to develop a holistic understanding of participants’ responses, such as understanding the motivation behind specific responses.

Question 56

what is primary data?

Answer 56

data that is collected directly from the source, and is ‘first hand’. It is collected by the researcher for their own purpose, usually to test a hypothesis.

Question 57

what are two strengths of primary data?

Answer 57

It is a reliable way to collect data because the researcher can do it again as they know the procedures, how it was collected and analysed since they did it themselves.

Will be more valid and reliable as it is more ‘up to date’ and uses current data, as opposed to secondary data which may be outdated.

Question 58

what are two limitations of primary data?

Answer 58

Researchers may be subjective in what kinds of data they look for in particular data that fits the hypothesis they are trying to test.

The data has to be gathered from scratch which involves finding a large enough population to make the sample credible and generalisable and in turn can collect a large volume of data. This usually makes it more costly and time consuming than collecting secondary data.

Question 59

what is secondary data?

Answer 59

is data that has been collected by someone other than the original user for their own purpose. It has been collected by some other individual or organisation and will not be used for the first time.
EG. if you access data from a website or journal to complete homework questions.

Question 60

what are three strengths of secondary data?

Answer 60

It saves effort, expenses and time.

It helps to make primary data collection more specific since with the help of secondary data, we are able to make out what are the gaps and deficiencies and what additional information needs to be collected. Can be used to fill in the gaps.

Can be used when primary data is not readily available and accessible.

Question 61

what are three limitations of secondary data?

Answer 61

Data may be outdated and not applicable to current times.

Cannot trust the reliability and validity as the researcher did not obtain it themselves.

May not be entirely relevant to what the researcher is investigating.

Question 62

what is qualitative data?

Answer 62

information about the ‘qualities’ or characteristics of what is being studied.
They are descriptions, words, meanings, pictures, verbal language, observations and so on. It can describe any aspect of a person’s mental experiences or behaviour; more specifically, what type, what category, what something is like or how something is experienced.
Often subjective due to individual interpretations of the data. It concerns concepts that cannot be expressed numerically.

Question 63

what are two strengths of qualitative data?

Answer 63

Qualitative data can give researchers a more thorough and holistic understanding of the context in which the quantitative, or other, data was collected.

It can provide background information, or context to the quantitative data.

Question 64

what are two limitations of qualitative data?

Answer 64

Qualitative data is difficult to statistically analyse (though it is not impossible).

This makes it difficult to manipulate the data in order to compare findings across groups and participants.

Qualitative data is often more time consuming to obtain and analyse.

Question 65

what is quantitative data?

Answer 65

Data that takes a numerical or categorical form, and can be statistically analysed and measured.

Numerical information on the ‘quantity’ or amount of what is being studied; that is, how much of something there is. This type of data is usually expressed in the form of units of measurement or numbers, such as raw scores, percentages, means, standard deviations and so on.

Question 66

what is a strength of quantitative data?

Answer 66

Quantitative data can undergo statistical analysis and then be represented numerically, easily allowing for comparisons to be made, trends to be seen and conclusions to be more readily drawn.

Question 67

what is a limitation of quantitative data?

Answer 67

Only analysing quantitative data means that researchers may not have a holistic or very detailed understanding of the phenomenon they are researching.

Question 68

what is a conclusion?

Answer 68

A conclusion is a decision about what the results obtained from research mean. All conclusions must be based on evidence (i.e. the results), be consistent with the evidence and relevant to what was actually investigated and take account of potential limitations of the research.

Question 69

what is a generalisation?

Answer 69

A generalisation is a decision or judgment about how widely the findings of a research study can be applied, particularly to other members of the population from which the sample was drawn.

A generalisation should only be made if the following four things are all met.
The results must be statistically significant (inferential stats only!!!)
The sample is representative of the population you wish to generalise to
The sampling method was appropriate (unbiased)
Extraneous and confounding variables have been controlled for to the best of ability (no obvious
flaws)

Question 70

what is reliability?

Answer 70

Reliability refers to the extent to which the results obtained from a research study are consistent, dependable and stable. This means that each time a behaviour or event is measured under the same conditions, the procedure(s) used should produce very similar results at the least.

Question 71

what is validity?

Answer 71

Validity refers to the extent to which the research study and its procedures measure what the research intended to measure.
Basically, the research design and the specific procedures used should match the requirements of the investigation to produce results that are relevant to the aims of the research.

Validity also relates to the conclusions (including any generalisation) the researcher makes about a study. In this case, the results are considered valid if the conclusion(s) drawn by the researcher is (are) correct. This means that the conclusion is specifically based on those variables that the study was investigating and the data obtained from the study.

Question 72

what is internal validity?

Answer 72

refers to the extent to which the results obtained for a study are actually due to the variable(s) that was tested or measured and not due to some other factor. Must review if any EV’s were present

Question 73

what is external validity?

Answer 73

refers to the extent to which the results obtained for a study can be generalised to the population from which the sample was drawn or to other people in other settings and over time. Must review the sampling procedures.

Question 74

WHat are Human Research ethics committees?

Answer 74

Committees thats main purpose is to assess research proposals for approval purposes, and then monitor the conduct of the research (if approved) to ensure all relevant ethical standards are adopted and followed.

Generally established by organisations like universities and hospitals

Question 75

what are the roles of HRECs?

Answer 75

deciding whether a research proposal meets all the requirements of the National Statement and is therefore ethically acceptable
deciding whether the researcher(s) is adequately experienced and qualified (or the researcher is supervised by a qualified person if there are concerns about their experience and qualifications)
monitoring approved research (e.g. through progress reports, random inspections of research sites, interviews with participants)
handling complaints (e.g. from participants, the wider community)
ensuring accountability of the researcher (e.g. the researcher understands, accepts and maintains responsibility for all aspects of their research).

Question 76

ethics - role of experimenter?

Answer 76

The experimenter (or researcher) must ensure their research is ethically appropriate so that participants are given the respect and protection that is due to them.

Question 77

ethics - protection and security of participants information?

Answer 77

The researcher must ensure that personal information is secure (kept safely) and protected from:
misuse, interference and loss; and
unauthorised access, modification or disclosure.
In addition, the researcher must make provisions for maintaining confidentiality in the collection, recording, accessing, storage, dissemination and disposal of personal information.

Question 78

ethics - confidentiality?

Answer 78

Confidentiality refers to the obligation of the researcher (or anyone else) not to use or disclose private information for any purpose other than that for which it was given to them.
Participants have a right to privacy, so the researcher must avoid undue invasion of privacy by collecting only information that is needed.

Question 79

ethics - voluntary participation?

Answer 79

The researcher must ensure participants voluntarily consent to be involved in a study.
For example, participants must not be forced or pressured to take part in a study.
The researcher must also ensure that prospective participants do not experience negative consequences if they choose not to be involved in a study.

Question 80

ethics - withdrawal rights?

Answer 80

Participants have an unconditional right to opt out of a study at any time without giving a reason for doing so.
This includes withdrawing their data after the study is finished regardless of the effect this may have on the overall results.
Withdrawal rights must be explained to participants before the study commences and the researcher must ensure that participants suffer no negative consequences as a result of withdrawing.

Question 81

ethics - informed consent?

Answer 81

Consent is a voluntary choice for participants and must be based on sufficient information and adequate understanding of both the proposed research and the consequences of participation in it.
In order for this to be achieved, information should be given about the purpose, methods, demands, risks and potential benefits of the research.

For participants who are legally unable to give informed consent (e.g. children and people impaired by an intellectual disability), the researcher must obtain appropriate consent from the persons who are legally responsible for participants’ wellbeing (i.e. parent or guardian).

Question 82

ethics - use of deception?

Answer 82

Deception occurs when participants are deliberately misled or not fully informed about the aim or some other aspect of the research.
This is sometimes necessary to avoid unduly influencing their responses during the study and consequently the accuracy of the results.
By its nature, deception violates the ethical requirement of informed consent. Its use also means that the relationship between the researcher and participant is not open and honest.
However, deception is considered acceptable if the potential benefits of the research justify its use and there is no feasible alternative to its use.
When deception is used, it is essential that all participants are debriefed at the conclusion of the study.

Question 83

ethics - debriefing?

Answer 83

Debriefing involves clarifying each participant’s understanding of the nature of the research as soon as possible after it has been conducted.
This includes explaining the true purpose of the research and why it was necessary to deceive them if deception was used, correcting any mistaken ideas and impressions participants may have, and providing an opportunity for questions about any aspect of the study, including the need for deception.
Another important requirement of debriefing is to check the wellbeing of each participant and address any harm that may have resulted from their participation in the study

Question 84

when is the mean an appropriate measure of central tendency

Answer 84

when set of data is clustered closely around a central score

may be misleading if data is widely spread, clustered around extreme values, outliers, or unevenly distributed

Question 85

what do different standard deviations indicate?

Answer 85

low = little variation - data is culstered around the mean

high - greater variation among the data

is a useful decriptive statistic as it provides a point of comparison between the means and the spreads of different sets of scores.

low standard deviation = more reliable