Psych Midterm 2 Flashcards
What are the big issues talked about in developmental psychology
Nurture vs. nature
Change and stability over lifespan
Continuity vs. stages over lifespan
Conception
Fertilization of an egg by a sperm
Embryo
About 2 weeks after fertilization, forms into an embryo
Fetus
At about 9 weeks, hands and face start to develop
At about _ months, a fetus can survive outside of the womb if born prematurely
6
Teratogens
Substances that can damage the developing fetus (e.g., alcohol, chemicals, drugs)
Learning
Newborns prefer the sound of their mothers voice and native language which suggests they have an understanding while still in the womb
Newborns have several innate skills… what are they?
Rooting reflex
Sucking reflex
Crying when hungry
Babies also prefer looking at “_____”
faces
Schemas change due to____________ (absorbing new information into existing schemas)
assimilation
Schemas change due to____________ (adjusting old schemas or developing new ones to better fit with new information)
accommodation
Jean Piaget:_________
Development is shaped by the errors we make and we create schemas to organize information about our surroundings
Sensorimotor
birth - 2 years): Experiencing the world through senses and actions
Object permanence is developed
Properational
(2-7 years): Representing things with words and images, using intuitive rather than logical reasoning
Pretend play, egocentrism (inability to put oneself into others’ shoes)
Concrete operational
(7-11 years): Thinking logically about concrete events, grasping concrete analogies and performing mathematical operations
Understand conservation and basic mathematical concepts
Formal operational
(12-adulthood): Can comprehend abstract logic
Abstract reasoning, mature moral reasoning
There are 3 types of attachment a child can have, what are they?
Secure, Avoidance, Anxious
Secure
Explores their environment happily when the mother is present, shows distress when the mother leaves, they seek comfort in their mother when she returns, and they are able to be calmed
Avoidant
Indifferent to the mother being there, leaving, and when she returns
Anxious
Cling to their mothers, explore less while the mother is in the room, very distressed when she leaves, and is very upset even when she returns
Egocentric
Cannot take another person’s perspective or point of view
Theory of Mind
The ability to take another’s perspective and to infer others’ mental states.
Authoritarian
(Coercive)
Parents impose rules “because I said so”
and expect obedience.
Permissive
(Unrestraining)
Parents submit to kids’ desires, not enforcing
limits or standards for child behavior.
Negligent
(Uninvolved)
Parents are careless, inattentive, and do not seek a close relationship with their children.
Authoritative
(Confrontive)
Parents enforce rules, limits, and standards
but also explain, discuss, listen, and express
respect for child’s ideas and wishes.
Preconventional
(before age 9) Self-interest, obey rules to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards
Conventional
(early adolescence) Uphold laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order
Postconventional
(adolescence and adulthood): Actions reflect belief in basic rights and self-defined ethical principles
Age developed: Birth to 18 months
Conflict faced: Because we’re completely helpless at this age, we depend on others to care for us and love us. If we receive good care and love, we learn to trust and will generally feel safe and secure in the world. If we don’t receive good care and love, we struggle to trust and will generally feel fearful of the world.
Stage 1: Trust vs. mistrust
Age developed: 2 to 3 years
Conflict faced: If we successfully complete toilet training and are allowed to gain more control over food choices, toy preferences, etc., we will develop autonomy and generally feel more secure and confident. If we fail to gain autonomy in these years, we will generally feel more shame and doubt.
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Age developed: 3 to 5 years
Conflict faced: In this stage, we learn to assert ourselves in social settings. If we succeed, we will develop initiative and generally feel more capable. If we fail, we’ll generally be left with more guilt and self-doubt.
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
Age developed: 6 to 11 years
Conflict faced: If we’re encouraged to improve our abilities and if our accomplishments are commended, we’re likely to develop a sense of confidence. If we’re discouraged and/or ridiculed by parents, teachers, or peers, we’re more likely to doubt our abilities.
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority
Age developed: 12 to 18 years
Conflict faced: In our teenage years, we can receive affirmation of our ideals, values, and sense of self or we can receive various forms of derision and rejection. Those who have their sense of self positively reinforced develop stronger feelings of independence and control. Those who don’t receive positive reinforcement end up with more insecurity and remain confused about themselves and their future.
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion
Age developed: 19 to 40 years
Conflict faced: If we develop close, committed relationships in our early adulthood, our lifelong relationships are more likely to be enduring and secure. Because each stage of development builds upon the others, the ability to form strong relationships is closely tied to whether or not we developed a strong sense of self in our teen years. Those without a strong sense of self are more likely to have less-committed relationships and suffer isolation and loneliness.
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
Age developed: 40 to 65 years
Conflict faced: If we succeed in building a good and productive life, we’re likely to feel like we’re contributing to the world. If we fail to build a good and productive life, we’re likely to feel uninvolved in the world.
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation
Age developed: 65 years to death
Conflict faced: In our later years, we tend to look back on life. If we can develop a sense of pride in our accomplishments, we’re likely to feel satisfied. If we fail to develop this pride, we’re likely to feel our life has been wasted.
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair
(ability to think quickly and recall information) declines with age
Fluid intelligence
(utilizing skills acquired through previous learning) does not decline with age
Crystalline intelligence
Associative learning: making connections or associations between two events
What are the two types
Classical and Operant
Defined as learning by associating two stimuli together
Understanding one event predicts another
Classical conditioning
An experimenter sounds a tone just before delivering an air puff that causes your eye to blink. After several repetitions, you blink to the tone alone. What is the NS, US, UR, CS, and CR?
NS = tone before conditioning
US = air puff
UR = blink to air puff
CS = tone after conditioning
CR = blink to tone
What classical condition principle is this? previously neutral stimulus becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus and creates a response when presented
Acquisition
What classical condition principle is this? learned response to stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimuli
Generalization
What classical condition principle is this? learned response to a specific stimulus but not to other similar stimuli
Discrimination
What classical condition principle is this?
when the US is not presented and only the CS and no response occurs
Extinction
What classical condition principle is this?
when a CR that was extinct comes back
Spontaneous recovery
Defined as learning by associating a behaviour with its consequences
Differs from classical conditioning in that learning occurs when we learning that behaviours have consequences
operant conditioning
Every time Robert’s wife flushes the toilet when he’s in the shower, the water becomes painfully hot. One day, as Robert is stepping into the shower, he hears a flushing sound and flinches.
What is the US, UR, CS, and CR?
US = hot water, UR = pain from hot water, CS = sound of flush, CR = flinching (due to anticipated pain)
Jonathan loves spicy food! Last week he ate at Tia Mexicana three times and literally perspired from the hot spices. Yesterday, as he drove past the restaurant, Jonathan began to perspire profusely. What is the US, UR, CS, and CR?
US = eating spicy food, UR = perspiring from the spicy food, CS = the restaurant, CR = perspiring when seeing the restaurant
Rewarded behaviour tends to reoccur and punished behaviour is less likely to reoccur
Skinner Box experiment is the same premise (push lever to get treat)
Thorndike’s Experiment—Law of Effect
Adding a desirable stimulus to increase behaviour, which Principle of Operant Conditioning is this?
Positive reinforcement
Removing an undesirable stimulus to increase behaviour, which Principle of Operant Conditioning is this?
Negative reinforcement
adding an undesirable stimulus to decrease, which Principle of Operant Conditioning is this?
Positive punishment
removing a desirable stimulus to decrease behaviour, which Principle of Operant Conditioning is this?
Negative punishment
Which Reinforcement Schedule is this? reinforcing a response after a specific number of responses of that behaviour is shown
Fixed Ratio
Which Reinforcement Schedule is this? reinforcing a response after a random number of responses is shown
Variable-ratio
Which Reinforcement Schedule is this? reinforcing a response after a specific amount of time has occurred
Fixed-interval
Which Reinforcement Schedule is this? reinforcing a response after a random amount of time has occurred
Variable-interval
Who said this? Psychology should be an objective science based on observable behaviour (behaviourism)
John Watson (1913)
What operant condition principle is this?
learned response to stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimuli
Generalization
What operant condition principle is this?
learned response to a specific stimulus but not to other similar stimuli
Discrimination
What operant condition principle is this? when the US is not presented and only the CS and no response occurs
Extinction
What operant condition principle is this?
reward behaviour in steps or successive approximations, once first step is mastered, reward the next step once reached
Shaping
Defined as learning new behaviours or information by watching others and imitating them
observational learning
behaviour is learned through direct reward and of seeing others rewarded for behaviour
Social Learning Theory
What observational process is this?
how much we focus on others’ behaviours
Attention
What observational process is this?
our ability to remember others’ behaviour
Retention
What observational process is this?
ability to perform the actions we observe
Production processes
What observational process is this?
need for actions we see, how useful it is to the self
Motivation
neurons that fire when we watch others do or feel something similar to if we were doing the action or feeling it ourselves
Mirror neurons🡪
What type of reinforcement or punishment is this?
1. If you bring your umbrella, you won’t get rained on
negative reinforcement
What type of reinforcement or punishment is this?
2. A parent tells a child they can watch TV if they finish their homework
positive reinforcement
What type of reinforcement or punishment is this?
3. If you get out of bed, your roommate will stop yelling at you to get up
negative reinforcement
What type of reinforcement or punishment is this?
4. A police officer gives a speeding motorist a ticket
positive punishment
What type of reinforcement or punishment is this?
5. A dog gets a Milkbone if he rolls over and plays dead
positive reinforcement
What type of reinforcement or punishment is this?
If you take an aspirin, your headache pain will go away
negative reinforcement
What type of reinforcement or punishment is this?
If you get caught drunk driving, you will lose your license
negative punishment
What role of cognition is this?
no matter the behaviour, no reward
Learned helplessness
What role of cognition is this?
believe you will be rewarded, behave more often
Beliefs about reinforcement
What role of cognition is this?
your own feelings can change behaviour
Self-evaluations
What part of the Modified Three-Stage Memory model is this? any event and sensory input of info into sensory memory
External event
What part of the Modified Three-Stage Memory model is this? brief recording of info held here
Sensory memory
What part of the Modified Three-Stage Memory model is this? info that was salient is rehearsed, made sense of, playing an active role
Working/Short-term memory
What part of the Modified Three-Stage Memory model is this? info encoded into LTM for later retrieval
Long-term memory
What part of the Modified Three-Stage Memory model is this? info not consciously aware of that is encoded
Automatic processing
How long do sensory memories persist?
Iconic memory (vision)
0.5 seconds
How long do sensory memories persist?
Echoic memory (hearing)
3-4 seconds
How long do sensory memories persist?
Hepatic memory (touch)
1 second
magical number 7 plus or minus 2
Capacity (Miller, 1956)
What working memory strategy is this? organizing items into manageable units (letters into words, words into sentences)
Chunking
What working memory strategy is this?
memory aids that use vivid imagery and organizational devices (acronyms)
Mnemonics
What working memory strategy is this?
composed of a few broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts
Hierarchies
What type of memory processing is this?
explicit/declarative memories (conscious)
Effortful processing
What type of memory processing is this?
implicit/non-declarative memories (unconscious)
Automatic processing
Riding a bike uses what type of processing: Automatic or Effortless
Automatic
Knowing what you had for dinner yesterday uses which type of processing?
Automatic
Remembering last Christmas uses what type of processing?
Effortful
Facts and general knowledge uses which type of processing?
Effortful
Noticing items previously learned (multiple choice) is called?
Recognition
Info encoded earlier but needing to extract information (short answer) is called?
Recall
What are the three things that cause us to forget?
Decay
Encoding Failure
Retrieval Failure
What are the three things that cause us to forget?
Decay
Encoding Failure
Retrieval Failure
What reason for forgetting is being described? forgetting curve where the course of forgetting is initially rapid but then levels off with time
Decay
What reason for forgetting is being described?
memories stored in long-term memory are inaccessible
Retrieval Failure
What reason for forgetting is being described? info from sensory and working memory is not encoded into long-term memory
Encoding failure
Which Serial Position Effect is this?
ability to recall most recent items
Recency effect
Which Serial Position Effect is this?
ability to recall first few items
Primacy effect
What error in memory is this?
incorporating misleading info in one’s memory of an event
Misinformation effect
What error in memory is this?
attributing an event experienced, heard about, or imagined to the wrong source
Source amnesia
What error in memory is this?
reconstructing memories when questioned about an event
Eyewitness
What error in memory is this?
believing something happened the way you remember but it did not
False memories
Working memory is also called…
short term memory
Who preformed a study based of rehearsal?
Hermann Ebbinghaus
What is retrograde amnesia?
Forgetting the past but being able to store in the present (the vow)
What is anterograde amnesia?
Forgetting everything that happens in the present but remembering the past (50 first dates)
