Psych last exam! Flashcards
1
Q
Attribution theory
A
people seek to explain their own and other ppl’s behavior by attributing causes of that behvavior to a situation or a disposition
2
Q
Situational attribution-
A
identify cause of an action by something in the situation or environment
3
Q
Dispositional attribution-
A
identify the cause of an action as something in the person
4
Q
Fundamental attribution error
A
overestimate personality traits as a cause of behavior and underestimate the influence of the situation
5
Q
Better-than-average effect:
A
bias to believe that we are better than average
6
Q
Just world hypothesis:
A
the bias to believe that the world is fair (can lead to victim blaming)
7
Q
Self-fulfilling prophecy
A
when a persons first impression (or expectation) affects one’s behavior, and that affects the other ppl’s behavior leading one to “confirm” the initial impression or expectation
8
Q
False consensus effect
A
tendency to project the self-concept onto the social world
9
Q
Naive realism
A
our perceptions of reality are accurate, that we see things accurately
10
Q
Dunning-Kruger effect
A
when a person’s lack of knowledge and skill in a certain area causes them to overestimate their own competence
11
Q
attitudes
A
belief about ppl, groups or ideas
12
Q
familiarity effect
A
tendency to hold positive attitudes toward familiar ppl and things (repeatedly exposing ppl to a name or product makes them like it more)
13
Q
Elaboration likelihood model:
A
2 routes by which persuasive communications can produce attitude change
- central route: facts, info
- peripheral route:
**there’s also foot-in-the-door and door-in-the-face
14
Q
Cognitive dissonance
A
state of tension that occurs when a person simultaneously holds two beliefs that are in conflict with each-other
- can cause justification of problematic behavior
- minimization
- dismissing evidence
15
Q
Norms
A
rules and expectations that regulate social life (explicit laws and implicit cultural conventions)
16
Q
Milgram experiment
A
experimenter, teacher, learner (who was an actor not an actual participant)
- every time the learner got it wrong the teacher would have to press a button to shock the learner
- the question was “how far would a random student go?”
- demonstrates the authority figure complex (the experimenter says its ok so the teacher would keep going)
17
Q
when were the teachers more likely to disobey in the milgram experiment? (5)
A
- when the victim was in the same room
- when 2 different experimenters said different things
- when the person ordering them to continue was not an authority figure
- when participants worked with fellow teachers who refused to go further (they often gained the courage to disobey)
- if the experimenter left, teachers would pretend they followed orders but didn’t
18
Q
Conformity
A
due to a need for social acceptance or the need for information (ice bucket challenge to raise money for ALS)
19
Q
Social loafing
A
when an individual puts less effort into working on a task with others
20
Q
Social facilitation
A
when one’s performance is affected by the presence of others
21
Q
group think
A
decision-making problem in which group members avoid arguments and strive for agreement
22
Q
Bystander effect
A
an individual is less likely to help when they percieve that others are not helping
23
Q
diffusion of responsibility
A
reduced personal responsibility that a person feels when more people are present in a situation
24
Q
Pluralistic ignorance
A
we often look to others for cues to the acceptable social response, and if we see that others are not responding to the situation
25
deindividuation
loss of awareness of one’s individuality
26
hostile sexism
active dislike of women
27
benevolent sexism
putting women on a pedestal
28
Psychological prejudice
can ward off feeling of doubt, fear, and low self-esteem, provide scapegoat to cope with feeling of powerlessness
29
social prejudice
acquired through pressure to conform to others views and may be passed mindlessly from one generation to another, through parental lessons
30
economic prejudice:
rises and falls with changing economic conditions
31
Cultural and national prejudice
bonds ppl to their own ethnic or national group, justifying whatever they do to preserve their own customs and national policies
32
Personality:
distinctive, relatively stable pattern of behaviour, thoughts, motives and emotions
33
Psychodynamic theories
explain behaviour and personality in terms of unconscious energy dynamics within the individual
34
Psychoanalysis:
a psychodynamic theory, originally formulated by freud, that emphasizes the role of unconcious motives and conflicts
35
Id
reservoir of unconcious psychological energies and the motives to obtain pleasure and avoid pain (also contains libido and death instinct)
36
Ego
referee between the needs of instinct and the demands of society
37
Superego
voice of conscience, representing a learned sense of morality and parental authority
38
Defense mechanisms
protect the ego from unconscious anxiety, (repression, projection, displacement (bringing stress home from your job), sublimation (finding an outlet), regression, denial
39
Psychosexual stages:
which sexual energy takes different forms as the child matures
- oral (0-2)- oral activities
- anal (2-3)- potty training
- phallic (3-7)- realize differences between sexes (boys in love with their moms, envy in girls)
- latency (7-11)- just chilling
- genital (11-adult)- normal humans
40
Collective unconscious
all humans share it and it contains archytypes: universal, symbolic images
41
Illusion of causality
retrospective analysis creates a link between events (if A came before B then it mustve cause B)
42
personality tests need to be both..
valid and reliable
43
Objective tests (inventories)
standardized questionnaires that provide info about:
- values
- interests
- self-esteem
- emotional problems
- typical ways of responding to situations
44
factor analysis
statistical method by raymond cattell (identified clusters of correlated items that measure some common, underlying factor)
45
openness
creative, artistic, curious, imaginative, nonconforming (conventional down to earth)
46
conscientiousness
ambitious, organized, reliable (unrealiable, lazy, casual, spontaneous)
47
extraversion
social, enjoy high levels of stimulation (reserved, enjow low levels of stimulation)
48
agreeableness
good-natured, trusting, supportive (rude, uncooperative, irritable, hostile, competitive)
49
neuroticism
worried, insecure, anxiety-prone (tranquil, secure, emotionally stable)
50
HEXACO model of personality
same as the big 5 (above) and adds an additional factor- honesty-humility
51
Dark triad
machiavellianism, psychopathy and narcissism
52
Heritability-
how much the variability in a trait can be explained by genetic factors (many adult personality traits is about .50)
53
Social-cognitive learning theorists
people acquire central personality traits from their learning history and resulting expectation
54
Reciprocal determinism
two way interaction between aspects of the environment and aspects of the individual in shaping personality traits
**kids are shaped by interactions involving the nonshared environment (unique and chance experiences that are not shared with other family members)
55
Humanist psychology
replaced psychoanalysis and behaviourism
**psychologists who take this approach to personality emphasize our uniquely human capacity to determine our own actions and futures
56
Maslow
emphasized peak experiences, he thought those who were self-actualized strived for a life that is meaningful, challenging, satisfying
57
Unconditional positive regard
carl rogers, love and support given to a person with no strings attached (unconditional love)
58
Existentialism
rollo may (emphasized the search for the meaning of life, confront death, take responsibility for our actions
59
Positive psychology
follows footsteps of humanism by fousing on positive human traits such as courage, altruism and the motivation to excel
60
mental disorder
disturbance in thinking, emotion or behaviour that causes a person to suffer, seriously impairs a persons ability to work with others, unable to control impulse to endanger others
61
Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM)
main aim is to provide descriptive and clear diagnostic categories
- clinicians and researchers can agree on which disorders they are talking about
- researchers can study disorders and clinicians can treat them
62
Problems with the DSM
- danger of over diagnosis
- power of diagnostic labels (bipolar, autism spectrum)
- illusion of objectivity
- inaccurate diagnosis
63
Structured interview
“script” of questions asked in a specific order to make sure no important questions are missed and that all clients and participants are evaluated in the same way
64
Unstructured interview-
more flexible, clinician can ask their own questions in an idiosyncratic order (could accidently ask leading questions which is bad!)
65
Projective tests
consist of ambiguous pictures, sentences or stories that the test taker interprets or completes
- lack reliability and validity
- makes them inappropriate for assessing personality traits or diagnosing mental disorders
66
Depression
emotional, behavioral, cognitive and physical changes severe enough to disrupt ordinary functioning
- feeling despairing and worthless
- losing interest in activities that usually give them pleasure
- feeling unable to get up and do things
- taking an enormous effort even to get dressed
- overeating or stopping eating
- having difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep
- having trouble concentrating
- difficulty falling or staying asleep
- trouble concentrating
- feeling tired all the time
some episodes last several months, subside, late recur
recurring thoughts of death
~20% of ppl experience major depression at some time
depression occurs at least twice as often among women as men (probably underdiagnosed because men mask their feelings with stuff)
67
Bipolar disorder
- ***mania*** an abnormally high state of exhilaration
- ***depression***
**alternating between the two
Bipolar type 1 and type 2
1. always experience episodes of mania, not always depression (manic last 7+ days)
2. hypomania (less severe manic episode) not as long, always experience depressive episode (~2 weeks)
68
Vulnerability stress model
how individual vulnerability might interact with external stresses to produce specific mental disorders
69
Main contributions to depression
- Genetic predisposition- moderately heritable
- personality traits- ex. neuroticism
- cognitive habits- ppl with depression typically think that their situation is permanent or uncontrolable
- violence and abuse- strongest predictors of suicide (especially as a child or victim of sexual abuse)
- loss of important relationship- loss of loved one
70
Generalized anxiety
continuos state of anxiety (restlessness, sleep problems, muscle tension and poor focus) genetic and neurobiological vulnerabilities can interact with harmful environments and lead to anxiety
71
Panic disorder
reoccurring rapid-onset of intense fear and physical symptoms (rapid heart rate, chest pain, shortness of breath, dizzy, hot and cold flashes, sweating, trembling and shaking)
- common yet ppl sometimes associate it with illness or impending death and not what it is
72
Phobia
unrealistic fear and avoidance of something (ex. heights, blood, claustrophobia)
73
Social anxiety
extreme anxiety in social situations, they think everyone is judging them
74
Agoraphobia
fear of places that an escape or rescue may be difficult in the event of an attack.
- begins with a panic attack and then the avoidance of areas (sometimes becomes so bad they wont leave the house without a trusted person)
75
PTSD
memories, insomnia after war, death, torture, loss of family member
- if symptoms are longer then a month it can be classified as PTSD
- flashbacks, nightmares, detachment from others and loss of interest in activities, irritability
76
causes of PTSD
- genetic vulnerability
- smaller then average hippocampus (reliving memories)
- exaggerated activity in the amygdala and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex
- prior history of mental health issues
- lower intelligence
77
OCD
recurrent, persistent, unwanted thought or images (obsessions). repetitive ritualistic behavior that needs to be carried out (compulsions).
- overactivity in connections between frontal cortex, striatum and thalamus
78
Personality disorders
pervasive, enduring patterns or emotion and behavior that causes someone to not be able to have productive relationships (there’s 10 in the DSM-5)
79
Borderline personality disorders
extreme negative emotions and inability to regulate emotions. Often intense but unstable relationships. Impulsivity, mutilating behavior, emptiness and fear of abandonment.
- genetic predisposition and problems interacting with parents in childhood
80
Antisocial personality disorder
****lifelong pattern or irresponsible, antisocial behavior (sometimes law breaking, violence, impulsive reckless acts).
- genetic basis (brain structure and function), also environmental events ex. birth complications, abuse
- frontal lobe abnormalities and amgydala
- lack of remorse empathy and fear
81
Psychopathy
set of personality characteristics that can acocmpany antisocial personality disorder
- fearlessness, lack of empathy guilt and remorse, use of deceit, cold heartedness
82
myths of psychopathy
- same thing as being violent and sadistic (its NOT, some are but not all)
- NOT the same as being psychotic
- they can’t change their ways
**there’s probably a lot more of them then we think (especially in western cultures)
**lack of emotional feeling may be related to CNS
83
Substance use disorder
broad set of symptoms related to substance use (mild to severe)
84
addiction
not a DSM-5TR category, used by clinicians referring to inability to control one’s consumption of substance despite obvious harm it causes
85
Biological or disease model
holds addiction due to neurology and genetic predisposition
ex. nicotine
***addiction can change behaviour!!*
86
Learning model
examines role of environment, learning and culture in encouraging or discouraging addiction
Research that supports!
- addiction patterns vary according to culture
- policies of total abstinence increase addiction
- not all addicts have withdrawal symptoms when they stop taking a drug
- addiction depends on reasons for taking it
87
Dissociative identity disorder (DID)
formerly known as multiple personality
- one person with 2 or more distinct personalities each with it’s own name and traits
- could be originating as a means of coping with abuse or other trauma through dissociation
- lacks empirical support!
- sociocognitive explanation of DID is that it’s simply an extreme form of the ability we all have to present different aspects of our personalities to others (results from pressure by clinicians)
88
Schizophrenia
words are split from meaning, actions from motives, perceptions from reality
- delusions
- hallucinations
- paranoia
- disorganized speech
- grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior
- loss of motivation to take care of oneself- emotional flatness
→ the more breakdowns and relapses the poorer the chances for recovery
89
origins of schizophrenia
- brain disease involves structural brain abnormalities
- reduced volumes of gray matter in prefrontal cortex and temporal lobes
- abnormalities in the hippocampus, neurotransmitters, neural activity, disrupted communication
- enlargement of ventricles in the brain
- abnormalities in the thalamus and in the auditory cortex
→ the most heritable of all disorders
90
medications
administered to treat illness or disorder
91
drugs
can be taken for medical treatment but also other reasons
92
antipsychotics
primarily used to treat schisophrenia and other psychotic disorders
- we typically now use second gen ones
93
antidepressants
depression, anxiety and OCD
- SSRIs- increase activity of serotonin at postsynaptic cell by slowing the rate of reuptake of serotonin
- Tricyclic antidepressants- block reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine
- MAOIs- block activity of monoamine oxidase enzyme, which breaks down key neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine, dopamine and serotonin
94
anti-anxiety meds (tranqs)
excessive anxiety
95
mood stabilizer/lithium
bipolar
- lithium is a salt compound, very toxic to kidneys so you can only be on it for a little while
- affect activity of GABA (inhibitory neurotransmitter that reduces neural activity)
- MDMA helps treat PTSD (hard to get approval)
96
direct brain intervention
when meds and psychotherapy haven’t worked (for seriously disturbed ppl)
- prefrontal lobotomy- most famous form of psychosurgery (bad)
- **anterior cingulotomy-** helpful with OCD and depression
97
focal lesions
small areas of brain tissue are surgically destroyed
98
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
passing an electrical current through the brain to induce a temporary seizure
99
Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)
focal area of the brain is exposed to powerful magnetic field across several treatment sessions
100
Deep brain stimulation (DBS)
electrically stimulating specific regions of the brain
101
Psychodynamic (depth) therapy
includes Freudian psychoanalysis and its modern variations
- most psychodynamic therapists borrow methods from other forms of therapy
- **transference-** client’s displacement of unconscious emotions or reactions onto the therapist
102
behavior therapy
classical and operant conditioning to help ppl change self-defeating or problematic behaviors
- behavioral self-monitoring
- skills training
- systemic desensitization
- graduated exposure and flooding
103
cognitive therapy
identify and change irrational unproductive ways of thinking to reduce negative emotions
104
Aaron Beck’s cognitive therapy for depression
specific pessimistic thoughts, these beliefs are unproductive and based on misinformation
105
Albert Ellis’s rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT)-
using rational arguments to directly challenge a persons beliefs, ppl are prone to overgeneralizations
106
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)
- now most common approach
- mindfulness and acceptance
- nonjudgmental approach
- focus on coping techniques
- attentional breathing to interrupt a spiral of negative thinking
- very individualistic!
107
humanist therapy
- personal growth
- resilience
- human potential
- ability to change rather than repeating past conflicts
- help ppl express themselves creatively and achieve their full potential
108
Client-centered (nondirective) therapy
by carl rogers
- therapists empathy with the client
- use of unconditional positive regard (showing love and compassion and care with no strings attached, it doesn’t matter what’s going on in the clients lives)
therapists role
- help build client’s self-accpetance
- help client find more productive way of seeing their problems
- empathy!!
109
Existential therapy
help clients explore the meaning of existence and face questions of life like death, freedom, loneliness and meaninglessness
110
Family therapy
- individual problems develop in the context of the family
- they are sustained by the dynamics of the family
- any change the individual makes will affect all members
111
family systems perspective
identifies how each family member forms part of larger interactive system
112
couples therapy
therapist usually sees both partners in a relationship
- by seeing both partners the therapist cuts through the blaming and attacking
focus on:
- resolving their differences
- get over hurt and blame
- make specific behavioral changes to reduce anger and conflict
**both family and couples therapists may use psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive or humanistic approaches
- they share only the focus on the family or couple
- many use many types of therapies
113
