Psych LAQ

Question 1

Kessler & Bromet Aim

Answer 1

To compare the prevalence of depression across cultures

Question 2

Kessler & Bromet Procedure

Answer 2

Review of publications containing epidemiological data (surveys)

Question 3

Kessler & Bromet Findings

Answer 3

MDD is a commonly occurring disorder in all countries surveyed. Lifetime prevalence estimates of MDD ranged from 1% (Czech Republic) to 16.9% (USA). The 12-month prevalence estimate ranged from .3% (Czech Republic) to 10% (USA). The age of onset does not vary, regardless of socioeconomic status, and is 25 years. Women’s risk for developing MDD is also consistent across cultures and is twice that of men.

Question 4

Kessler & Bromet Conclusion

Answer 4

Prevalence rates of MDD vary considerably across cultures. This may be due to factors including the classification system in use, the survey used to establish symptoms, etc.

Question 5

Kessler & Bromet Evaluation

Answer 5

Researcher bias, Participant bias (Meta-analysis), High population validity, Low construct validity

Question 6

Furnham & Malik Aim

Answer 6

Investigate cross-cultural beliefs about depression

Question 7

Furnham & Malik Procedure

Answer 7

152 female subjects in two age groups: young (17-28) and middle-aged (35-62). Half of the participants were Native British and the other half were of Asian origin (born in India, Pakistan, or Bangladesh). Participants filled out questionnaires about their symptoms of mental illness and their beliefs about depression.Responses were compared across age groups and cultures.

Question 8

Furnham & Malik Findings

Answer 8

Perceptions of depression differed among Asian and British participants. Asian participants believed that depression is temporary and can be fixed by having a job outside the home. Differences were less pronounced in the groups of younger women. Asian middle-aged women reported being depressed significantly less than the younger group.

Question 9

Furnham & Malik Conclusion

Answer 9

Cultural differences affect the way depression is perceived and leads to reporting bias. These differences may be attributed to underlying cultural dimensions such as individualism vs collectivism. These cultural differences influence the rate at which disorders are reported. Globalization gradually erases these cultural differences, with the younger generation having less reporting bias.

Question 10

Furnham & Malik Evaluation

Answer 10

Participant bias/ self-reporting, High population validity/role of culture, Low construct validity/difficult to measure depression, Small sample size

Question 11

Kendler et al Aim

Answer 11

Compare genetic heritability of major depression in men and women

Question 12

Kendler et al Procedure

Answer 12

Over 42,000 twins are located through the national Swedish Twin Registry. The birth cohort spanned 60 years, which enabled researchers to compare results across generations. To assess lifetime major depression, a personal computer-assisted telephone interview was conducted with all participants using modified DSM-4 criteria.

Question 13

Kendler et al Findings

Answer 13

Genetic heritability of depression showed to be 38%, very similar to previous studies which found it to be 37% on average. No evidence was found that a shared environment was of any importance as a factor in developing major depression. Estimates did not differ significantly across age cohorts.

Question 14

Kendler et al Conclusion

Answer 14

Concluded that major depression was moderately heritable.

Question 15

Kendler et al Evaluation

Answer 15

• Large sample size
• Correlational
• The fact that concordance rate of MZ twins is far below 100% shows that depression may be the result of a genetic predisposition- genetic vulnerability. But doesn’t contradict argument that depression is genetically inherited. May mean that gene is there, but both twins have not experienced same level of stress.

Question 16

Caspi et al Aim

Answer 16

Investigate the relationship between stressful life events and depression in individuals with different functional polymorphisms (alleles) of the 5-HTT gene.

Question 17

Caspi et al Procedure

Answer 17

Over 1,000 children from New Zealand. The sample was divided into three groups: short alleles of 5-HTT, one short allele and one long allele, and two long alleles. A longitudinal study in which participants were assessed every 2 years between the ages of 3 and 25. Participants recorded stressful life events in a life history calendar this includes factors such as health, employment, and relationship stressors. Participants were also assessed for past-year depression with an interview based on DSM-5 criteria + combined with reports by people close to the participants

Question 18

Caspi et al Findings

Answer 18

There was the difference between the three groups in the number of stressful events they experienced. However, found that participants with a short allele of 5-HTT (s/l and s/s) reacted to stress life events with more depressive symptoms. Conversely, the depressive symptoms of particular participants in the l/l group stayed at the same level.

Question 19

Caspi et al Evaluation

Answer 19

This was a very large cohort of males and females and the age was controlled in order to isolate the variable of a number of stressful life events between the ages of 21 and 26. It was a natural experiment, with the naturally occurring IV being the length of the alleles. If the results are replicated this would suggest high reliability.

Gene action is highly complex, and actions of other genes could not be controlled. While the stressful life events were standardized as employment, financial, housing, health, and relationship, whether or not a participant experienced a certain event as stressful is highly personal. Moreover, the symptoms of depression were self-reported, although one colleague was contacted for each participant in order to verify the symptoms; self-reporting can be unreliable.

Question 20

Alloy, Abramson, & Francis Aim

Answer 20

Investigate whether a particular style (positive or negative) in freshmen is associated with the development of depressive symptoms.

Question 21

Alloy, Abramson, & Francis Procedure

Answer 21

Participants were non-depressed college freshmen. Participants were divided into two groups based on the results of a questionnaire given: low risk vs high risk for depression. Participants with a negative cognitive style which believed that negative life events were catastrophic were placed in the high risk group. Followed longitudinally for 5.5 years and assessments included self-report measures and structured interviews

Question 22

Alloy, Abramson, & Francis Findings

Answer 22

During the first 2.5 years of follow-up: high-risk freshmen were more likely to develop the major depressive disorder than low-risk (17% vs. 1%). High-risk freshmen were also more likely to develop suicidal thoughts and behavior (28% to 13%)

Question 23

Alloy, Abramson, & Francis Conclusion

Answer 23

Negative cognitive styles may influence the development of major depression

Question 24

Alloy, Abramson, & Francis Evaluation

Answer 24

The theory of cognitive vulnerability has been applied in therapy (CBT) and has been shown to be effective.
+ method and data triangulation → credibility
+ tests used to measure cognitive style are highly standardized and have a high level of reliability.
+ The use of a pre-test, / post-test design helps to diminish the bidirectional ambiguity
- experiment - that is, the researcher does not manipulate the independent variable. → no cause and effect
- Daily lives were not controlled. Also thinking patterns could have changed and may be difficult to measure

Question 25

Caseras et al Aim

Answer 25

Investigate whether attention to positive vs. negative stimuli is different in depressed vs. non-depressed participants.

Question 26

Caseras et al Procedure

Answer 26

Using a questionnaire, 43 participants were divided into two groups - those with depressive symptoms and non-depressed ones. Shown a series of 32 picture pairs with negative (sadness and loss), positive (happy), and neutral stimuli. Each pair was presented for 3 seconds. Using eye-tracking technology, researchers measured which picture the participant looked at initially and the duration of looking at the initial picture before switching.

Question 27

Caseras et al Findings

Answer 27

Participants with depressive symptoms demonstrated a bias in the maintenance of attention to negative pictures - but no differences were found in initial orienting. So depressed participants found it harder to switch their attention to the other picture

Question 28

Caseras et al Conclusion

Answer 28

Negative attention bias potentially is one of the mechanisms of major depression

Question 29

Caseras et al Evaluation

Question 30

Kivela et al Aim

Answer 30

To investigate the extent to which various social factors predict the occurrence of depression in elderly populations.

Question 31

Kivela et al Procedure

Answer 31

A clinical study of depression in old age was completed in Finland in 1984-85 with 1,529 participants aged 61 or older. Participants were divided into two groups: depressed vs non-depressed. Questionnaires were used to measure social variables and the occurrence of certain life events. Participants were again examined in 1989-90.

Question 32

Kivela et al Findings

Answer 32

In 1989-1980, 8% of men and 9% of women in the sample were diagnosed with depression. Compared to non-depressed men it was revealed that the following were predictors of depression in men: poor relationships with spouse and neighbor and loss of mothers while under 20 years of age. Compared to non-depressed women it was revealed that the following were predictors of depression in women: the loss of a father while under 20 years of age, a worsening relationship with a neighbor, and an alcohol problem of a close person

Question 33

Kivela et al Conclusion

Answer 33

Social factors and changes in social ties may predict the onset of depression at old.

Question 34

Kivela et al Evaluation

Question 35

Rosenquist, Fowler, & Christakis Aim

Answer 35

Investigate is depressive symptoms can spread from person to person

Question 36

Rosenquist, Fowler, & Christakis Procedure

Answer 36

A questionnaire for measuring depression was administered three times between 1983 and 2001. Data was computerized, with a focus on levels of depression in each individual as well as friends, relatives, neighbors, and co-workers

Question 37

Rosenquist, Fowler, & Christakis Findings

Answer 37

There is a significant correlation in depressive symptoms up to three degrees of separation away. Participants were 93% more likely to be depressed if a person directly connected to was depressed. This came down to 37% more likely to be depressed if a person within three degrees of separation was depressed

Question 38

Rosenquist, Fowler, & Christakis Conclusion

Answer 38

Depression in one person may cause depression in people the individual is socially connected to.

Question 39

Rosenquist, Fowler, & Christakis Evaluation

Answer 39

• Conducted over a long time (18 years)
• A large sample size (12,067)
• A variety of people for the social network (as in family, friends, and neighbors were considered, so a bunch of different types of relationships)
• Not enough consideration was taken about whether this may be because people with depressive symptoms may attract each other as they can relate, rather than “spread” the symptoms
• Questionnaires = could be lied on