Psych final Flashcards
1
Q
Neural mechanisms invlolved in emotional memory
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mechanisms: memories for emotionally significant events; multiple perspectives: behavioral science, evolutionary psychology, cognative psychology, clinical psychology.
Behavioral neuroscience: How do we rememeber emotionally significant events. brain structs: amygdala, hippocampus, both help us dectect emotionally significant events.
evolutionary psychology: what is the genetic contribution to human behavior made by amygdala + hippocampus –> why might have evolution shaped is to remember emotionally significant events; variation, survivial, reproduction. survival of the fittest
cognitive psychology: memory -> how accurate are our memories for emotionally significant events?
Clinical psychology: can our memories for emotionally significant events ever go away?
2
Q
Flashbulb memories
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Vivid detailed, complelling, WRONG, humans are active information processors, different aspects to what gets encoded; experiences and memoires can be left out.
3
Q
PTSD
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Post Traumatic stress disorder : disorder involving frequent and unwanted thoughts related to past stress or trauma (ie: nightmeres, intrusive thoughts, flashbacks) .
4
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Unifying themes and debates
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Themes: Nature/ Nurture : do genetics or environment contribute most to psychological outcomes?
Limited diachotomies: Limited value of ‘either/ or’ ; psych is more ‘yes, and….’ (both contriubiting factors, how do they combine). How the human mind constructs and deconstructs experiences (active information processors).
Active information processors: active engagement with an intrepretation of our words,
Abnormal informs the normal: no absolute definition of ‘Normal’ so study of abnormal (missing) helps ascertain normal human processes.
Commitment to scientific method : truth through emperical validation –> psychological research: varibales ( IV/DV, conceptual vs operational ; measured vs manipulated) ; research stratagies: correlational vs experimental studies, ethical considerations;
5
Q
Independent/ dependent Variable
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IV: variable that is manipulated or measured
DV: effect of manipulation on specific behavior
6
Q
Conceptual/ Operational defintion
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Conceptual: abstract
Operational: How a variable is assessed - difference btwn psych and phil - conceptual is turned into operational via research, phil tends to focus only on conceptual.
7
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Self-report
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Definiton: participants/ people rate state their own results
8
Q
Observational measure:
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Definition : something that can be seen, counted.
9
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Physiological measure:
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Definition: showing clear signs and symptoms
10
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Measured/manipulted variable:
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Measured: observed/recorded
Manipulated: researcher assigns/controlled -> assigning participants to groups (1 aspect or another in respect to IV), srtong possibility that the IV is altered to determine if any noticable change occurs
11
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Correlation does not mean causation:
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Correlation is not directly related to causation.
12
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Directionality Problem
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Definition: correlation in data does not equal causation, like which event came first the chicken or the egg. Cant determine which came first
13
Q
Third Variable Problem
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Defintion: individual difference variables. MANY MANY variables that can’t assessed and can impact results increase uncertainty.
14
Q
Correlation study
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Definition: IV is measured/ predicted ex: college students self report violent video game time and researchers observe and rate aggressive behavior.
15
Q
Adachi & Willoughby (2011)
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Experiment: college students randomly assigned to play a violent or non-violent video game for 15 minutes. After the game, participants dole out hot sauce to someone who doesnt like spicy foods
16
Q
Experimental
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Definition: manipulation of IV –> determines which event came first ( solves directionality problem) ; has experimental and comparison group.
Random assignment –> ensures equivalent groups (eliminating the third variable problem), equalizes many of the indavidual difference variables , a causal relationship can be determined.
17
Q
Confounding Variable
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Definition: any factor that varies btwn two experimental groups
18
Q
Gerneralizability
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Definition: a measure of how useful the results of a study are for a broader group of people or situations.
19
Q
WEIRD Study
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Particiapants and study:
20
Q
Ethical principles
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Principles: Do no harm protects patients from harm and discomfort; infromed consent participants agree to be part of a study w/o coercion; debreif reseachers explain study and reveal any ‘lies’ told to participants during the inital presentation; confidentitality ensures that any results found are resleased as a group avg, no indiv results are resleased, ex; HIPPA, privacy prevents psychologitsts from watching or studying participants w/o their knowledge.
21
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Debrief
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Defition: researchers explain study and reveal any previous misleadings.
22
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Behavior neuroscience
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Defition: the study of the NS and its effects on behvavior, emotion and cognition
23
Q
CNS
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Central Nervous System: made up of brain and spinal cord, fxn: processing, organizing, and intrepreting information and sending it back to PNS
24
Q
PNS
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Peripheral Nervous System : 1) somatosenory info taken in first , sent to CNS, response from CNS signal results in activation, somatic NS acts on voluntary controlled parts of body. Made up of two regions, Somatic and ANS (autonomic NS), Somatic NS regulates organs under voluntary control (ex: muscles), Automonic NS regulates organs under nonvoluntary control –> made up of two systems SNS -> Symp NS ( flight or flight), & PSNS -> peripheral NS (rest & digest) both work simultaneously.
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Neruon
cell body: nucelus of neruons,
dendrites : recieves all of the nerual stimuli signals
axon: signal from dendrites travel down from presynaptic cell to synapses
myelin: the cover on the axon that helps to keep the signal moving faster.
axon terminals: where the signal from the presynaptic cell is recieved.
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Action Potentials
AP's: a rapid, transient, all-or-none change in the mbn potential; rate and or number frequency and number of excited neruons --> creates a stronger AP.
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Resting Potential
RP's: neuron is not stimulated --> inside of axon is eletrically negatively charged on the inside = -70 mV More Na+ out and K+ in ( salty banana)
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Threshold for AP
Threshold: -55 mV , external electrical stimulus/ electrical potential --> cell becomes potential --> mbn pot at which cell will fire. More positive --> via Na+ flowing in
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Sodium Potassium Pump
Na+/K+ Pump : Moves Na+ and K+ in and out of the cell for depolarization and repolarization
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Voltage gated channels
Na+ : Opens first, influx of Na+ into the cell and depolarizes past threshold which results in the neuron firing
K+: VGC opens and K+ outflux out of the cell resulting in a repolarization of the cell back to threshold, after the neruon fires.
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Depolarization
Definition: when the VG Na+ channels open due to stimulation of signal received from the dendrites which results in an influx of Na+ into the cell ( via passive transport). this causes the threshold of the mbn to change from -70 mV to -55 mV which results in the neruon firing a signal down the axon.
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Repolarization
Definition: when the VG Na+ channels open due to stimulation of signal receieved for the dendrites and Na+ influxes into the cell and depolarizes the cell chaning the mbn mV from -70 to -55 and inorder to stabilize the cell again, there is an influx of K+ into the cell which results in change in mbn potential change from -55 to -90 mV.
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Initiation and propagation of the action potenial
Initiation: the start / release of a signal along the axon after stimulation of VG Na+ and K+ channels.
propagation: an AP travels down an axon at high speed because of mylination
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All-or-none law
AP's All or none : either happen or they dont
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Synapse:
Fxn: a junction between two synapses, allows for impulses to pass from one cell to another, house the NT's
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Synaptic vesicles
Fxn: release NT's from the synapses which bind to postsynaptic cell.
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Neurotransmitter
Fxn: A chemical signal released from synaptic vesicles that binds to receptors on post synaptic cell to intiate a response.
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Reuptake:
fxn: NT's taken up by cell + placed in new vesicles -> released when new AP comes through.
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Lock and key model of synaptic transmission
Fxn: receptors only respond to NT's that fit its shape
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Agonist
fxn: increase NT activity --> increase in release, binding and activating (mimic) NT and block reuptake
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Anatagonist
Fxn: decreased NT action -> block release; bind an block receptors.
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Role and drug/disorder :
dopaine: voluntary movement, motivation, reward. Parkinson's asychotactive drugs; schizophrenia
seratonin: mood, hunger, sleep. Depression
GABA: Inhibitory. Anxiety, tranquilizers
glutamate: Excitatory. Migranes, siezures.
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MRI:
fxn: studies brain anatomy
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fMRI
fxn: studies brain fxn, looking for increased oxygen flow during an axon being completed (increased oxygen-laden fxn)
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Hindbrain
Struct & fxn: survival fxn and movement
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Medulla
Struct & fxn: controls HR and breathing. in the brainstem
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Pons
Struct & fxn: controls sleep and arousal, in the brainstem
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Cerebellum
Struct & fxn: in the hind brain, responsible for movement and coordination.
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Midbrain
Struct & fxn: responsible for movement,
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Substantia nigra
Struct & fxn:
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Forebrain
Struct & fxn: made up of cerebral cortex and subcortical structures.
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Cerebral cortex:
Struct & fxn: thought planning, part of the forebrain; Process mental activity
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Subcortical structures
Struct & fxn: cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, thalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus, basal ganglia
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Thalamus
Struct & fxn: sensory gateway for seeing, hearing, etc.
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Amygdala
Struct & fxn : associates emotions w/ experiences/ memories --> specifically fear and anger
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Hypothalamus
Struct & fxn: regulates body fxns and motivates behaviors; activated by amygdala, communicates directly with ANS -> signals adrenal gland -> stimulates epi ( adrenal glands)
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Hippocampus
Struct & fxn: responsible for memory making and encoding based on sigificant events related to emotions
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Convolutions
Fxn: folds in the cortex
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Left and right hemispheres
Connected by the corpus callosum
Left: controls the right side of the body
Right: controls the left side of the body
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Corpus callosum
Struct & fxn: bundle of axons that allows for communication btwn hemispheres
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Lateralization
Fxn: functional asymmetry , both hemispheres are constatnly working together
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Frontal Lobe
Struct & fxn: complex throught, planning, movement
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Parietal lobe
Struct & fxn: touch, spatial relations
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Temporal lobe
Struct & fxn: hearing and memory
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Occipital lobe
Struct & fxn : vision
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Phineas Gage
Def: abnormal infroms the normal
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Cerebral cortex:
primary Motor : motor actons on/initates motor activity
primary Sensory: touch
primary visual cortex: vision
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Contralateral control
LH controls right side of body
RH controls left side of body
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ANS
Autonomic Nervous System: made up of the PSNS and SNS; PSNS -> rest and digest; SNS -> fight or flight response; its involuntary organs
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Somat NS
Somatic Nervous System: voluntary control of organ structures; ie: muscles
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SNS
Sympathetic Nervous System: fight or flight
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PSNS
Parasympathetic Nervous System: rest and digest
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Endocrine System
fxn: controls release of hormes, regulated by HPA axis
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Hormones
fxn: chemicals that coordinate different functions in your body by carrying messages through the body to organs, skin, muscles, and other tissues, released by glands
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Adrenal gland
fxn: "stess hormones" cortisol and adrenaline
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Pituitary gland
fxn: master gland that lies below hypothalamus
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HPA axis
Fxn: Hypothalamic --> pituitary --> Adrenal Axis
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Sensation
Def: detection stimulation of part of the body by the environment (via a sense organ), unconscious, objective -> each person's sense organs stimulated same way, 1) environment (physical) stimulus; 2) Sensory organ: specalized part of body that detects environmental stimulus; 3) Sensory receptors: neurons w/in sensory organs that convert environmental stimulus into an action potential through process of transduction. Information relayed thruogh the thalamus and to primary sensory cortex.
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Perception
Def: organization, intrepretation, identification of sensory signals to from a mental representation. Conscious mind, subjective (each person percieves world differetnly), brain, influcenced by Attention, Mood, past experiences, context, expectations,etc, more important in understanding behavior than sensation/ 'relatity', involves both bottom up and top down processing
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Sensory organs
fxn: specialized part of the body that detects environmental stimulus
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Sensory Receptors
fxn: neurons with in sensory organs that convert environmental stimulus into an action portential through process of transduction.
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Sensory transduction:
fxn: the translation of sensory stimulus through nerual activity.
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Thalamus and primary sensory cortex in sensation
fxn: sensory information is relayed through the thalamus and then to primary sensory cortex.
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Optical illusions:
fxn: an illusion caused by the visual system and characterized by a visual percept that arguably appears to differ from reality.
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Olfaction
Fxn : sense of smell
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Gustation
Fxn: sense of taste
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Perception is active:
def : humans are active information processors
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Sine wave speech
def: a technique for synthesizing speech by replacing the formants (main bands of energy) with pure tone whistles.
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Bottom up processing
fxn: analysis that begins integration of sensory information. ex: like putting together a puzzle w/o looking at the top pic and seeing how each piece fits. What could this be? ( sensation)
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top down processing
fxn: information processing guided by our experiences, expectations, and higher coritical processing (aka; active information processors. Ex; like putting together a puzzle and being guided by the top picture given. Is this what I think it is? (Perception).
91
Bowlby
therory: attachment
critisims: based on one parent as the caregiver.
emphasis on nature vs nurture: babies matching of attachment signals that influence behavior.
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Attachement
definition : enduring emotional bond,
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Attachment theory
Def: development and consequences of the child-care giver relationship.
attachment becomes a road map for future social and emotional fxning =working model (1): what relationships are like, 2) expectations for treatment, 3) self-esteem.
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Harlow (1958)
study on rhesus monkeys: purpose us attachment based on reduction of hunger drive, thought there was more to development than what Freud though and described. method: control group ranked by biological mother. two experiment groups of monkeys raised by two surrogate mothers; wire mesh and terry cloth 'mothers', only 1 has the bottle. baby monkeys were placed in w/ cages and inanimate mothers and taken from biological mothers shortly after birth.
results: monkeys clung to terry cloth mother and were comforted by her, whether or not she had the bottle. --> importance of comfort contact
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Comfort contact:
def: necessary but not sufficent, The physical and emotional comfort that an infant receives from being close to its mother
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Attachment Signals
def: exhibtied by infant, caretaker must respond to infant signals promptly, consistantly and warmly.
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Ainsworth (1978)
Study on attachment styles;
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Strange situation task
Def: technique for measuring quality of attachment, involves a series of separations and reunions w/ the caretaker and stanger, conducted study observing behavior at home and in the lab.
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Secure base
Def: provided through a relationship with one or more sensitive and responsive attachment figures who meet the child's needs and to whom the child can turn as a safe haven, when upset or anxious.
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Separation anxiety
Def: infant is moderately distressed when their mother leaves the room
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Secure, ambivalent, avoidant attahcment
secure: The attachment style for infants who are confident enough to play in an unfamiliar environment as long as the caregiver is present and who are readily comforted by the return of the caregiver
Ambivalent: anxious, extreme distress, not easily comforted, occurs with inconsistent parenting
Avoidant: indifferent, often dont show distress, rejecting parenting.
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Internal working model
Def: is a working model, ie: people are constantly chaning and modification is possible.
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Long term correlates infant attachment
def: in adulthood, parents are joined/replaced as attachment figures by adult romantic partners; continutity in attachment.
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Hazan & Shaver's theory of attachment
Adult attachment: secure: capable of genuine intimacy, insecure : ambivalent = needy + engulfing, avoidant : unable to get close.
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Alternative attachment figures
figures: family, friend, professional
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Saunders et al 2011
study on alternative attachment figures : how secure adult attachments are.
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Piaget's 4 stages of cognitive development
4 Stages: Sensorimotor :birth to 2 --> uses senses and motor actions to explore and understand the world. "error of interest" : lack of object perminance (8-9 months) -> lack the ability to form mental images of objects that are not present.
pre operational (2-6 yrs old) symbolic thought = ability to use images, words, or guestures to represent objects + experiences ie: play pretend, language, "error of interest" ; lack of conservation : thinking too simplistically, intuitvley and illogically, dominated by appearances; conservation tasks = appearance of an object is altered in a superficial way even though the basic properties of the substance remain the same: liquid, mass, #.
Concrete operational (7-11) : cogntive gains: logical reasoning; error of interest : not capable of abstract thinking
Formal operational (12+): abstract and hypothetical thinking: love, truth, justice, torque, metacognition, ability for systematic problem solving.
Adolescence: risk takers; prefrontal cortex still developing: lack impulse control; planning; limbic system is fully developed.
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Object permanence
Def: lack of object perminance (8-9 months) -> lack the ability to form mental images of objects that are not present.
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Symbolic thought
Def: ability to use images, words, or guestures to represent objects + experiences ie: play pretend, language,
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Conservation tasks
Def: appearance of an object is altered in a superficial way even though the basic properties of the substance remain the same: liquid, mass, #.
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Abstract vs. concrete thinking
Abstract: the ability to consider concepts beyond what we observe physically.
concrete: a more literal form of thinking that focuses on the physical world
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Developmental of prefrontal cortex:
Def: still developing: lack impulse control; planning;
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William James
studies: Introspection: continuous, subjective, private, altered states.
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Introspection
def; the examination of one's own conscious thoughts and feelings
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Circadian rhythms
def: The regulation of biological cycles into regular, daily patterns., internal clock, 24 hr cycles of biological processes, keeps your body on schedule, receiveing light at the wrong time can confuse your internal clock, can lead to diseases such as cancer, heart disease, depression, can also prevent ability to think. Photo sensitive rentinal ganglion cell : sense the brightness of surroundings, send information to suprachiasmatic nucleus.
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Suprachiasmatic nucleus
fxn; hypothalamus regulates circadian rhythm, blue light intereferes, receive info from photosensitive retinal ganglion cells in retina that assesses brightness.
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Pineal gland
fxn: help control the circadian cycle of sleep and wakefulness by secreting melatonin.
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Melatonin
fxn: chemical that keeps you in a state of wakefullness, normally reduced naturally during sleep stages, can be influenced by blue light.
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Sleep stages
stages: NREM 1 -> First stage of sleep, in which a person is drifting off; EEGs show slower theta waves, and conscious awareness of both the external world and inner mental activity starts to decline.
NREM 2 -> Second stage of sleep, in which a person is truly asleep; EEGs show K-complexes and sleep spindles, and there is much less conscious awareness of both the external world and inner mental activity.
NREM 3 -> Third stage of sleep, also known as slow-wave sleep, in which a person is substantially less conscious and is hard to awaken; EEGs reveal large, regular delta waves. muscles relax, blood pressure and breathing rate drop, deepest sleep occurs. falling into a deep sleep where slow waves occur, no eye movement, or muscle movement, "restoritive sleep stage" phase of deep sleep that helps you feel refreshed in the morning, where your body repairs muscle and tissue, encourages growth and developement, imporves immune function.
REM-> The stage of sleep in which a person experiences rapid eye movements, dreaming, and paralysis of motor systems; EEGs show beta wave activity, which is also associated with an awake, conscious mind. brain becomes more active, body becomes more relaxed and immobalized, dreams occur, eyes move rapidly
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NREM:
Sleep stages and EEG: NREM 1 -> stage btwn wakefulness and sleep, lasts around 5-10 minutes.
NREM 2 -> body temp drops and HR beings to slow, brain begins to produce sleep spindles, lasts approximately 20 minutes.
NREM 3 -> muscles relax, blood pressure and breathing rate drop, deepest sleep occurs. falling into a deep sleep where slow waves occur, no eye movement, or muscle movement, "restoritive sleep stage" phase of deep sleep that helps you feel refreshed in the morning, where your body repairs muscle and tissue, encourages growth and developement, imporves immune function.
B4 sleep : beta, just b4 sleep : Alpha, NREM 1: theta, NREM 2: sleep spindles and K-complex, NREM 3: Delta, REM: Beta.
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K-complex
def: a waveform identified on electroencephalography (EEG), which primarily occurs during Stage 2 (N2) of NREM sleep
suppressing cortical arousal in response to stimuli that the sleeping brain evaluates not to signal danger, and second, aiding sleep-based memory consolidation.
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Sleep Spindle
def; occur during NREM 2 sleep stage,
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REM sleep
Sleep and EEG patterns: Beta waves, The stage of sleep in which a person experiences rapid eye movements, dreaming, and paralysis of motor systems; EEGs show beta wave activity, which is also associated with an awake, conscious mind.
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Freud's theory of dreams:
Dream Interpretation - The Idea that dreams contain meaning. The theory suggests that dreams are the unconscious way of our minds revealing what is repressed.
Dynamic Unconscious - Where thoughts or ideas that our conscious minds repress, lay dormant.
Wish Fulfillment - dreams often reflect what we want, or what we wish for.
Children's dreams often clearly reflect this.
Manifest and Latent Content
Manifest content is the subject matter of your dreams
Latent content is the meaning of one’s dreams actively being hidden
Free Association - To ascertain the meaning of the dream, Freud would ask the patient what they thought each element of the dream means, following their train of thought.
There is no such thing as a dream dictionary.
All elements of the dream are symbolic, but the meaning are always private and personal to the dreamer.
Every dream is symbolic, no matter how nonsensical.
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Manifest and latent content of dreams:
manifest: is the subject matter of your dreams
latent: the meaning of one’s dreams actively being hidden
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Activation-synthesis theory of dreams
Activation-Synthesis: Random neuronal firing in the brain results in stimulus activation (sound, sight, etc.); Occurs During Rem Sleep when there is a lot of activity in the brain stem
The forebrain attempts to interpret this sensory input via the incorporation of it with their long-term memories
Result is random, emotionally varied dreams; does not mean meaningless
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Mindfulness and concentrative meditation
def: letting your thoughts flow freely but not examining their meaning or reacting to them in any way
concentrative: focus attention on one thing, such as breating pattern, a mental image or specific phrase.
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Effects of alcohol, marijuana, cocaine on NT's
alcohol: a drink that contains ethanol, a GABA inhibitory, glutamate excitatory, increases GABA bidning to receptors, block glutamate receptors, brain: impaired memory formation, decison making, impuse control, cerebellum, frontal lobe
marijuana: Active ingredient =THC mimics naturally occuring ananamide --> binds to a cannabinoid receptors, preventing the release of an inhibitory NT affect: THC also binds to cannibinoid receptor, causing the same effect, results in higher levels of dopamine being released, anandamide breaks down fast, THC does not. effects --> forget unncessary STM,, excess dopamine levels have a relaxing/calming effect, perceptual and cognitive dostortions, Uses: reduce nausea in chemo patients, pain reliever, treat symptoms of other dieases, lessen tremors in parkinsons disease (dopamine defency).
cocaine: binds to dopamine reuptake sites, inhibiting the reuptake of dopamine; Constant dopamine stimulation causes an amplified dopamine response and the sense of euphoria associated with a cocaine high; Consistent use can result in altered reward pathways and extreme cravings ; Users oftentimes “cannot” feel happy and satisfied without being under the influence of cocaine; Consistent use can also result in lower glucose metabolism in the frontal lobe; Lower glucose metabolism = lower activity
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Learning
def: a process that produces a relatively enduring change in behvaior or knowledge as a result of an individiuals experience
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Conditioning
def: a form of learning in which either (1) a given stimulus (or signal) becomes increasingly effective in evoking a response or (2) a response occurs with increasing regularity in a well-specified and stable environment.
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Classical conditioning
def: A type of learned response in which a neutral object comes to elicit a response when it is associated with a stimulus that already produces a response.
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Operant conditioning
def: A learning process in which an action’s consequences determine how likely an action is to be performed in the future.
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Ivan Pavlov
studies: classical conditioning, dogs and food / digestive system. discovered dogs began to salivate b4 food; elicit behaviors bring forth.
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UCS
Unconditioned Stimulus: unlearned stimulus, results in automatic response, no need to learn anything when responding to a stimulus.
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UCR
Unconditioned Response; unlearned response to stimulus
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Neutral stimulus
def; signal used overtime to stimulate a certain behavior
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Conditioned stimulus
def; learned stimulus
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Conditioned response
def: learned response to a stimulus
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Extinction in context of classical conditioning
extinction: the diminished response that occurs when the CS is no longer paired w/ the UCS , NOT unlearning
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Spontaneous recovery in the context of operant conditioning
spontaneous recovery; re-appearance of previously extinguished CR,
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John Watson
Studies: experimental techniques vs introspection
Purpose: observable behavior vs 'mentalism'
founder of behaviorism
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Behaviorism
def: A school of thought that emphasizes the role of environmental forces in producing behavior.
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Watson and Rayner (1920)
Study on classical conditioning: 1920, ethical concerns: did not distinguish little alberts fear; Little Albert had a fear of dogs.
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Stimulus generalization
def: where a stimulus similar to the origional CS also elicits the CR
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Exposure therapy
def: Therapy technique that involves repeatedly exposing a client to an anxiety-producing stimulus or situation; the goal is to reduce the client’s fear through extinction of the fear response.
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B.F Skinner
Studies; behaviorist, studied rats and pigeons
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Skinner box
study; on rats and pigeons, applied postive and negative reinforcements, had some type of level or key to deliver food pallets, steel bars at bottom that could deliver electrical shocks.
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Positive reinforcment
def: given something to increase behavior (gain)
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Negative reinforcement
def; something taken away to increase behvaior (stop)
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Positive Punishment
def: given somthing to decrease behavior (gain)
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Negative punishment
def: something taken away to decrease behavior (stop)
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Extinction in the context of operant conditioning
operant conditioning: non-reinforcement of a response that was previously reinforced
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Spontaneous recovery in the context of operant conditioning
operant conditioning: reappearance of certain conditioned behavior following a break period after the extinction has taken place.
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Extinction burst
def: behavior returns and is exhibited after a period of time. which leads to fustration.
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Azrin, Hutchinson, Hake (1966) study on fustration and extinction
Study: put two pigeons in skinners box, found that one pigeon attacked the innocent partner out of fustration.
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Using postivtive reinforcement effectivley
How: reinforcer must be reinnforcing and contingent, behvavior must be reinforced on a variable schedule.
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Variable reinforcement schedule
Def: fixed interval: Reinforcing the occurrence of a particular behavior after a predetermined amount of time since the last reinforcement.
fixed ratio : Reinforcing a particular behavior after that behavior has occurred for a predetermined number of times.
variable interval: Reinforcing the occurrence of a particular behavior after an unpredictable and varying amount of time since the last reinforcement.
Variable ratio: Reinforcing a particular behavior after the behavior has occurred for an unpredictable and varying number of times.
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Problems with positive punishment
Problems: not aversive or immediate, emotionally overwhelming, leaves no other response in its place ex: catch a child being good.
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Shaping
def; reinforcing approximations
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Albert Bandura
Studies: coined observational learning (ish),
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Observational learning
def : The acquisition or modification of a behavior after exposure to at least one performance of that behavior.
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Modeling (models):
def: aquire new behaviors by observing the actions of others, learning in the abscense of direct reinforcement.
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Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961) study on observational learning of aggression
Study entails : had children ages 3-6, procedure was 1) observe model -> unique aggressive behvaviors 3 times through use of verbal phrases while child is watching the parent, 2) fustration : take away a "desire", 3) free play -> observes how kids respond to toys and bobo doll, randomly assigment to groups : 3 experimental groups, varied by reality cues of the model: live, film, cartoon; control group = no model, results: all groups w/ models showed more imitative agression than control. filmed condition most influential in insitgating total aggression (gun play + non-imatative aggression).
implications: 1) abscense of reinforcement: demonstrated phenonmenon of observational learning & allowed for a drastic growth in understanding of learning, where there was no reinforcemtn that applied and yet children still leaned and showed a behavior by observing., 2) violence in media.
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Stage model of memory
Stage model : sensory memory : lrg capacity short duration (1/4 to 3 seconds) * focus -> snap shots of surrounding -> instantaneous and then its gone, new snapshots taken - any info during that time payed attention to is encoded to short term memory. --> short term memory (limited capacity short duration - 20 w/o rehersal --> encoded information stored in long term memory (unlimited capacity, potentially permenent duration) , if information encoded and stored in LTM is not use or rehersed, it may be forgotten after a certain period of time and ubale to be retrieved.
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Sensory Memory
Def: large capacity, short duration about 1/4 to 3 seconds
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Sperling (1960)
Study: Procedure: 1) letters flashed for 1/20th of a second 2) blank screen is showed, 3) full report - recall about half the letters, based on rows, partial report : signaled row for recall AFTER the letters disappeared, near perfect recall; accuracy decreased w/ delay of signaling.
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Short-term memory
def: abt 20 seconds, increased duration by maintainance rehersal = repeat, capacity is george miller (1956) # 7 +/- 2 magic # = memory span, increased capacity by chunking, can hold 7 +/- 2 chunks of information in memory span.
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Maintenance rehersal
Def: repeating information, recalling/ reviewing information,
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Memory span
def; george miller 1956 --> capaciy/ span is 7+/- 2 chunks of information
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Chunking
def: grouping of related terms, concepts, ideas, etc
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Long-term memory
def: unlimited capacity potentially permanent duration, if information encoded is not maintained or retrived after a period of time, forgetting can occur
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Retrieval
def: all or none, cues : clues, prompts or hints that tigger information recall.
there is a big difference in what is stored in ltm and what we can recall.
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Tip-of-the-tongue
def: subjectively feel information is very close
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Elaborative rehersal
def; focus on the meaining, relate to things you know, use own words & examples ( ex: whiteboarding and drawing).
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Mnemonics
def: stratagies that use retrieval cues to improve recal (ex: FLAT PiG, male HPG axis SSS ( Sertoli cells, spermatogensis, )
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Distributed pracitce
def: review of information over a spaced period of time, not all at once (cramming)
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Explicit memory (w/ awareness) : episodic and semantic memory part of LTM
episodic : events
semantic: general knowledge
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Implicit memory (w/o awareness) : procedural memory and classical conditioning
procedural: motor skills, habits
classical: conditoning
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Amnesia
Def: general = serve memeory loss (abnormal informs the normal, how we learned how memory chart works)
Retrograde: inability to remeber all or some of the past (usually results from blow to the head)
Anterograde: inability to form new memories ex: case of H.M
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Memory consolidation
def: "setting" up a new memory into long term memory
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Ellenbogen et al. (2006) on effects of sleep on memory consolidation
effects; two groups, taught a word pair list and then are group was taught at 9 am and tested at 9 pm and one group was taught at 9 pm and tested at 9 am.,
results: students who 'slept on it' did better than those who did not (94 % vs 82%), another test conducted but now were intentially distrupted b4 test by asking to memorize another word pair would only be tested on the first.
Differences btwn sleepers and non-sleepers even greater ( 76% vs 32%), data suggests that sleep consolidates memory into long term memory storage.
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Case of H.M
Case: Hippocampus and medial temporal lobe removed b/c of eplilepsy, explicity memory disturbed (antrogreade amnesia), implant memory intact.
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Brain regions involved in memory processing
Regions: hippocamus and medial temporal lobe
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Loftus research on false memories
Research entails : identity; elizabeth loftus -> false memories, memories: are movies for things that didnt happen.
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Misinformation paradigm
def ; memories can be distorted
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Morgan et al. 2013 study on the misinformation effect
misinofrmation effect; memories can distored
procedure : 1) witness/ experience event: military personel interrogated in mock POW camp, 2) groups -> misinformation group : 'foil' photo, mis info = photo, no misinfo group : no foil; 3) memory test: four days later w/ photos of potential interrogates ; results: overall 50 % gave false postive identifications,
misinformation effect: misinformation group 84% selected 'foil' photos, when the information provided influences the memoires of the participants on the memory test.
No misinformation group : 15% selected "foil"
conclusions: demonstrates the constructive nature of long term memory
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Memory reconsolidation
def : encoding -> storage = consolidation, storage -> retrieval -> new experience -> encoding -> storage = reconsolidation of altered memory with new experience --> retrieval.
memories can change each time they are reitrevied, each memory is of the previous retrieval, not the origonal experience.
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Lost in the mall paradigm:
memory implantation: typical procedure from 1st study: 1) family memeber provides real events and details from participants childhood, 2) researcher presents some real and some false events (e.g loss in the mall), 3) memory test: ask participants to describe memories of each event.
Typical results: significant minority remember the false event w/ confidence, details, and emotion.
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Shaw and Porter 2015
study on memory implantation: 70% of college students remember committing a crime as adolsencets, not all did (implant memory).
but you can implant good memories too.
