Psych Exam revison Flashcards
What is a between-subjects design in experimental research?
A design where different participants are assigned to different conditions, so each participant experiences only one condition of the experiment.
What is a within-subjects design in experimental research?
A design where the same participants are exposed to all conditions of the experiment, allowing for direct comparisons of each condition.
What are the advantages of a within-subjects design?
It requires fewer participants and controls for individual differences between groups.
What are the disadvantages of a within-subjects design?
Fatigue and order effects
What is a mixed design in experimental research?
A design that combines both between-subjects and within-subjects elements, allowing some variables to be tested across different groups and others within the same group.
What are common sampling procedures in psychology research? (3)
Random sampling, stratified sampling, and convenience sampling.
How does random sampling differ from convenience sampling?
Random sampling ensures every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected, while convenience sampling selects participants based on availability, not randomness.
GUSTATORY SYNAESTHESIA
Experiencing sensations of taste when they perceive certain words
WWhat is the difference between a sample and the population in an experiment?
The population is the entire group a researcher is interested in studying, while the sample is the subset of that population used in the actual experiment.
Define independent variable (IV) and dependent variable (DV).
The IV is the variable manipulated by the experimenter, and the DV is the variable measured to determine the effect of the IV.
What is an extraneous variable in an experiment?
Any variable other than the IV that might influence the DV if not controlled. Identified at the begining
What are confounding variables?
Variables that influence both the IV and DV, causing potential false correlations between them, thus “confounding” the results. This is identified at end of the experiment
How can confounding variables be reduced?
Through randomization, use of control groups, and matching participants across conditions to account for individual differences.
What does it mean to operationalize variables in an experiment?
It means defining the variables in measurable terms so they can be tested. For example, operationalizing “stress” might involve measuring heart rate or cortisol levels.
What is informed consent in psychological research?
The process by which participants are informed about the nature of the study, potential risks, and benefits, and voluntarily agree to participate.
What are withdrawal rights in psychology experiments?
The right of participants to leave the study at any time without any negative consequences or explanation required.
What is confidentiality in psychology research?
Ensuring that all personal information and data collected during the study is kept private and not shared without consent.
When is the use of deception allowed in psychological research?
Deception is only allowed when no other alternative exists to achieve the study’s aims and when participants are fully debriefed afterward.
What is debriefing in psychological research?
Explaining the true nature and purpose of the study to participants after it has been completed, especially if deception was used.
Define voluntary participation.
Participants must choose to participate in research freely, without coercion or undue influence.
What does the concept of justice entail in psychological research?
Ensuring fair treatment and distribution of risks and benefits among participants.
How does integrity apply to psychology research?
Integrity involves conducting research in an honest, ethical, and accurate manner, without falsifying or misrepresenting data.
What does non-maleficence mean in the context of psychological research?
Researchers must ensure that no harm comes to participants, minimizing risks wherever possible.
What is beneficence in psychological research?
The obligation to maximize benefits and minimize harm to participants during the study.
What does respect mean in psychological research?
Respecting the dignity, autonomy, and rights of all participants.
What is the difference between external and internal validity?
Internal validity refers to how well the experiment is conducted and whether the IV truly causes changes in the DV. External validity refers to how well the results generalize to other populations or settings.
What are the differences between objective and subjective data?
Objective data is measurable and observable (e.g., heart rate), while subjective data is based on personal experiences and perceptions (e.g., self-reported mood).
What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative data?
Qualitative data is descriptive and explores the quality of phenomena, while quantitative data is numerical and measures the quantity or amount of something.
What is the difference between primary and secondary data?
Primary data is collected firsthand by the researcher, while secondary data is data that has been collected previously by someone else.
What does generalizing mean in psychology?
Generalizing involves applying the results of a study from the sample to the larger population. Factors like sample size and representativeness may affect the ability to generalize.
: What is the difference between a controlled study, a case study, and a correlational study?
A controlled study manipulates variables to establish causation, a case study provides an in-depth look at a single individual or group, and a correlational study examines the relationship between two variables without establishing causality.
What are the advantages of a correlational study?
It allows for the study of relationships between variables without manipulation, making it more ethical and practical for certain research questions.
What are descriptive statistics?
Descriptive statistics summarize and describe the features of a data set, including measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode) and measures of variability (range, standard deviation).
What are the six essential components of a graph?
Title, axis labels, a key (if needed), a clear data representation (e.g., bars or lines), units of measurement, and a consistent scale.
What is psychological development?
Psychological development refers to the growth and changes in a person’s mental, emotional, and social capabilities throughout life.
What is cognitive development?
Cognitive development is the process by which a person’s ability to think, understand, and reason changes over time, involving memory, problem-solving, and decision-making skills.
What is social development?
Social development refers to how people develop social skills, relationships, and an understanding of societal norms.
What is emotional development?
Emotional development involves understanding, managing, and expressing emotions, as well as developing empathy and emotional regulation
What is the nature vs. nurture debate in psychology?
The debate centers on whether genetics (nature) or the environment (nurture) plays a more critical role in psychological development.
How do heredity and environmental factors interact in psychological development?
Heredity provides the genetic framework for development, while environmental factors, like upbringing and social influences, shape how these genetic predispositions are expressed.
What is the biopsychosocial model (BPS) in mental well-being?
The BPS model suggests that mental health and well-being are influenced by the interaction of biological, psychological, and social factors.
What is the mental health continuum?
The mental health continuum describes the range of mental states, from being mentally healthy to experiencing a mental health problem or a mental disorder.
What are risk factors in psychological development?
Risk factors are characteristics or conditions that increase the likelihood of developing a mental health problem (e.g., trauma, poverty, or genetic predispositions)
What are protective factors in psychological development?
Protective factors are conditions or attributes that help prevent mental health problems (e.g., social support, coping skills, positive relationships).
What is the difference between a critical period and a sensitive period in development?
A critical period is a specific time in development when certain skills or abilities must develop, while a sensitive period is a more flexible time when learning is optimal but can still occur outside of this window.
What is Harry Harlow’s theory of attachment?
Harlow’s theory of attachment demonstrated that comfort and security (rather than just nourishment) are crucial for forming an emotional bond, as shown in his experiments with baby monkeys and surrogate mothers.
What are Jean Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development, and what are their key achievements?
Sensorimotor stage (0-2 years): Object permanence.
Preoperational stage (2-7 years): Symbolic thought, egocentrism.
Concrete operational stage (7-11 years): Logical thinking, conservation.
Formal operational stage (11+ years): Abstract thinking, hypothetical reasoning.
What is Bandura’s social learning theory?
Bandura’s theory suggests that people learn behaviors through observation, imitation, and modeling. Observational learning occurs when people watch others and then replicate their actions.
What is the difference between typical and atypical behavior?
Typical behavior conforms to societal norms and is common for most individuals, while atypical behavior deviates from the norm and may indicate psychological problems.
Define adaptive and maladaptive behaviors.
Adaptive behaviors allow individuals to adjust and function well in daily life, while maladaptive behaviors interfere with a person’s ability to meet the demands of everyday living.
What are the sociocultural and medical approaches to normality?
Sociocultural approach: Defines normality based on societal and cultural norms.
Medical approach: Views abnormal behavior as a result of biological factors and treats it medically.
What is the statistical approach to normality?
The statistical approach defines normality based on behaviors that are typical or average within a population, where anything that deviates significantly from the average may be considered abnormal.
What is neurodiversity?
Neurodiversity is the concept that neurological differences, such as Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), are natural variations of the human brain and should be recognized as such.
What are structural and functional neuroimaging techniques?
Structural: Techniques like CT and MRI scans that show the physical structure of the brain.
Functional: Techniques like PET and fMRI scans that show brain activity and functions.
What are the main structures of a neuron, and what are their functions?
Dendrites: Receive signals from other neurons.
Axon: Transmits signals to other neurons.
Myelin sheath: Protects the axon and speeds up signal transmission.
Synapse: The gap between neurons where neurotransmitters are released.
What brain structures are involved in memory?
The hippocampus, amygdala, basal ganglia, neocortex, and cerebellum all play key roles in various types of memory processing and storage.
What is hemisphere specialisation?
The idea that each hemisphere of the brain is specialised for different functions. The left hemisphere is typically involved in language, logic, and analytical thinking, while the right hemisphere processes spatial, creative, and emotional tasks.
What is neuroplasticity?
Neuroplasticity refers to the brain’s ability to reorganise itself by forming new neural connections throughout life, especially after injury or learning new information.
What is the difference between developmental and adaptive plasticity?
Developmental plasticity occurs as the brain matures, involving processes like synaptogenesis and synaptic pruning.
Adaptive plasticity occurs in response to brain injury, where the brain “reroutes” or “sprouts” new connections to compensate for lost functions.
How does an acquired brain injury (ABI) impact a person’s biological, psychological, and social functioning?
ABI can affect motor functions (biological), cognition and behaviour (psychological), and relationships or work life (social).
What is chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), and why is it frequently misdiagnosed?
CTE is a degenerative brain condition caused by repeated head injuries, often seen in athletes. It is frequently misdiagnosed because its symptoms (memory loss, mood swings, and cognitive decline) overlap with other conditions like Alzheimer’s or depression.
What are long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD)?
LTP: Strengthening of synaptic connections through repeated stimulation, which is essential for learning and memory.
LTD: Weakening of synaptic connections when there is low or no stimulation, which allows for flexibility in learning.
What are attributions?
Attributions are explanations that people make about the causes of their own and others’ behaviours. These can be categorised as either internal (personal factors, such as personality) or external (situational factors, such as environment).
What is cognitive dissonance? Provide an example.
Cognitive dissonance occurs when there is a conflict between a person’s beliefs and behaviours, creating psychological discomfort. For example, if someone believes smoking is unhealthy but continues to smoke, they may experience dissonance.
How can cognitive dissonance be reduced?
Cognitive dissonance can be reduced by changing the conflicting belief, changing the behaviour, or rationalising the inconsistency (cognitive bias).
What are cognitive biases, and how do they reduce cognitive dissonance?
Cognitive biases are mental shortcuts or errors in thinking that help reduce cognitive dissonance. For example, confirmation bias (seeking out information that supports an existing belief) can ease discomfort by affirming one’s views.
What is attitude formation, and what are the criteria for forming an attitude?
Attitude formation is the process by which people develop evaluations of others, objects, or ideas. The criteria include experiences, social interactions, and exposure to information, which shape whether an attitude is positive or negative.
What is the tri-component model of attitudes?
The tri-component model explains that attitudes have three components:
Affective: Emotional response to something.
Behavioral: How one acts toward something.
Cognitive: The beliefs one holds about something.
What are heuristics?
Heuristics are mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that people use to make decisions quickly and efficiently.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of using heuristics?
Advantages: They save time and mental energy when making decisions.
Disadvantages: They can lead to errors in judgment or biased thinking.
Define stereotyping and explain why it is problematic.
Stereotyping is the act of assigning generalised characteristics to all members of a group. It is problematic because it leads to overgeneralization, ignores individual differences, and can contribute to prejudice and discrimination.
