Psych Exam revison Flashcards
1
Q
What is a between-subjects design in experimental research?
A
A design where different participants are assigned to different conditions, so each participant experiences only one condition of the experiment.
2
Q
What is a within-subjects design in experimental research?
A
A design where the same participants are exposed to all conditions of the experiment, allowing for direct comparisons of each condition.
3
Q
What are the advantages of a within-subjects design?
A
It requires fewer participants and controls for individual differences between groups.
4
Q
What are the disadvantages of a within-subjects design?
A
Fatigue and order effects
5
Q
What is a mixed design in experimental research?
A
A design that combines both between-subjects and within-subjects elements, allowing some variables to be tested across different groups and others within the same group.
6
Q
A
7
Q
What are common sampling procedures in psychology research? (3)
A
Random sampling, stratified sampling, and convenience sampling.
8
Q
How does random sampling differ from convenience sampling?
A
Random sampling ensures every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected, while convenience sampling selects participants based on availability, not randomness.
9
Q
GUSTATORY SYNAESTHESIA
Experiencing sensations of taste when they perceive certain words
WWhat is the difference between a sample and the population in an experiment?
A
The population is the entire group a researcher is interested in studying, while the sample is the subset of that population used in the actual experiment.
10
Q
Define independent variable (IV) and dependent variable (DV).
A
The IV is the variable manipulated by the experimenter, and the DV is the variable measured to determine the effect of the IV.
11
Q
What is an extraneous variable in an experiment?
A
Any variable other than the IV that might influence the DV if not controlled. Identified at the begining
12
Q
What are confounding variables?
A
Variables that influence both the IV and DV, causing potential false correlations between them, thus “confounding” the results. This is identified at end of the experiment
13
Q
How can confounding variables be reduced?
A
Through randomization, use of control groups, and matching participants across conditions to account for individual differences.
14
Q
What does it mean to operationalize variables in an experiment?
A
It means defining the variables in measurable terms so they can be tested. For example, operationalizing “stress” might involve measuring heart rate or cortisol levels.
15
Q
What is informed consent in psychological research?
A
The process by which participants are informed about the nature of the study, potential risks, and benefits, and voluntarily agree to participate.
16
Q
What are withdrawal rights in psychology experiments?
A
The right of participants to leave the study at any time without any negative consequences or explanation required.
17
Q
What is confidentiality in psychology research?
A
Ensuring that all personal information and data collected during the study is kept private and not shared without consent.
18
Q
When is the use of deception allowed in psychological research?
A
Deception is only allowed when no other alternative exists to achieve the study’s aims and when participants are fully debriefed afterward.
19
Q
What is debriefing in psychological research?
A
Explaining the true nature and purpose of the study to participants after it has been completed, especially if deception was used.
20
Q
Define voluntary participation.
A
Participants must choose to participate in research freely, without coercion or undue influence.
21
Q
What does the concept of justice entail in psychological research?
A
Ensuring fair treatment and distribution of risks and benefits among participants.
22
Q
How does integrity apply to psychology research?
A
Integrity involves conducting research in an honest, ethical, and accurate manner, without falsifying or misrepresenting data.
23
Q
What does non-maleficence mean in the context of psychological research?
A
Researchers must ensure that no harm comes to participants, minimizing risks wherever possible.
24
Q
What is beneficence in psychological research?
A
The obligation to maximize benefits and minimize harm to participants during the study.
25
What does respect mean in psychological research?
Respecting the dignity, autonomy, and rights of all participants.
26
What is the difference between external and internal validity?
Internal validity refers to how well the experiment is conducted and whether the IV truly causes changes in the DV. External validity refers to how well the results generalize to other populations or settings.
27
What are the differences between objective and subjective data?
Objective data is measurable and observable (e.g., heart rate), while subjective data is based on personal experiences and perceptions (e.g., self-reported mood).
28
What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative data?
Qualitative data is descriptive and explores the quality of phenomena, while quantitative data is numerical and measures the quantity or amount of something.
29
What is the difference between primary and secondary data?
Primary data is collected firsthand by the researcher, while secondary data is data that has been collected previously by someone else.
30
What does generalizing mean in psychology?
Generalizing involves applying the results of a study from the sample to the larger population. Factors like sample size and representativeness may affect the ability to generalize.
31
: What is the difference between a controlled study, a case study, and a correlational study?
A controlled study manipulates variables to establish causation, a case study provides an in-depth look at a single individual or group, and a correlational study examines the relationship between two variables without establishing causality.
32
What are the advantages of a correlational study?
It allows for the study of relationships between variables without manipulation, making it more ethical and practical for certain research questions.
33
What are descriptive statistics?
Descriptive statistics summarize and describe the features of a data set, including measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode) and measures of variability (range, standard deviation).
34
What are the six essential components of a graph?
Title, axis labels, a key (if needed), a clear data representation (e.g., bars or lines), units of measurement, and a consistent scale.
35
What is psychological development?
Psychological development refers to the growth and changes in a person's mental, emotional, and social capabilities throughout life.
36
What is cognitive development?
Cognitive development is the process by which a person's ability to think, understand, and reason changes over time, involving memory, problem-solving, and decision-making skills.
37
What is social development?
Social development refers to how people develop social skills, relationships, and an understanding of societal norms.
38
What is emotional development?
Emotional development involves understanding, managing, and expressing emotions, as well as developing empathy and emotional regulation
39
What is the nature vs. nurture debate in psychology?
The debate centers on whether genetics (nature) or the environment (nurture) plays a more critical role in psychological development.
40
How do heredity and environmental factors interact in psychological development?
Heredity provides the genetic framework for development, while environmental factors, like upbringing and social influences, shape how these genetic predispositions are expressed.
41
What is the biopsychosocial model (BPS) in mental well-being?
The BPS model suggests that mental health and well-being are influenced by the interaction of biological, psychological, and social factors.
42
What is the mental health continuum?
The mental health continuum describes the range of mental states, from being mentally healthy to experiencing a mental health problem or a mental disorder.
43
What are risk factors in psychological development?
Risk factors are characteristics or conditions that increase the likelihood of developing a mental health problem (e.g., trauma, poverty, or genetic predispositions)
44
What are protective factors in psychological development?
Protective factors are conditions or attributes that help prevent mental health problems (e.g., social support, coping skills, positive relationships).
45
What is the difference between a critical period and a sensitive period in development?
A critical period is a specific time in development when certain skills or abilities must develop, while a sensitive period is a more flexible time when learning is optimal but can still occur outside of this window.
46
What is Harry Harlow’s theory of attachment?
Harlow's theory of attachment demonstrated that comfort and security (rather than just nourishment) are crucial for forming an emotional bond, as shown in his experiments with baby monkeys and surrogate mothers.
47
What are Jean Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development, and what are their key achievements?
Sensorimotor stage (0-2 years): Object permanence.
Preoperational stage (2-7 years): Symbolic thought, egocentrism.
Concrete operational stage (7-11 years): Logical thinking, conservation.
Formal operational stage (11+ years): Abstract thinking, hypothetical reasoning.
48
What is Bandura's social learning theory?
Bandura's theory suggests that people learn behaviors through observation, imitation, and modeling. Observational learning occurs when people watch others and then replicate their actions.
49
What is the difference between typical and atypical behavior?
Typical behavior conforms to societal norms and is common for most individuals, while atypical behavior deviates from the norm and may indicate psychological problems.
50
Define adaptive and maladaptive behaviors.
Adaptive behaviors allow individuals to adjust and function well in daily life, while maladaptive behaviors interfere with a person’s ability to meet the demands of everyday living.
51
What are the sociocultural and medical approaches to normality?
Sociocultural approach: Defines normality based on societal and cultural norms.
Medical approach: Views abnormal behavior as a result of biological factors and treats it medically.
52
What is the statistical approach to normality?
The statistical approach defines normality based on behaviors that are typical or average within a population, where anything that deviates significantly from the average may be considered abnormal.
53
What is neurodiversity?
Neurodiversity is the concept that neurological differences, such as Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), are natural variations of the human brain and should be recognized as such.
54
What are structural and functional neuroimaging techniques?
Structural: Techniques like CT and MRI scans that show the physical structure of the brain.
Functional: Techniques like PET and fMRI scans that show brain activity and functions.
55
What are the main structures of a neuron, and what are their functions?
Dendrites: Receive signals from other neurons.
Axon: Transmits signals to other neurons.
Myelin sheath: Protects the axon and speeds up signal transmission.
Synapse: The gap between neurons where neurotransmitters are released.
56
What brain structures are involved in memory?
The hippocampus, amygdala, basal ganglia, neocortex, and cerebellum all play key roles in various types of memory processing and storage.
57
What is hemisphere specialisation?
The idea that each hemisphere of the brain is specialised for different functions. The left hemisphere is typically involved in language, logic, and analytical thinking, while the right hemisphere processes spatial, creative, and emotional tasks.
58
What is neuroplasticity?
Neuroplasticity refers to the brain's ability to reorganise itself by forming new neural connections throughout life, especially after injury or learning new information.
59
What is the difference between developmental and adaptive plasticity?
Developmental plasticity occurs as the brain matures, involving processes like synaptogenesis and synaptic pruning.
Adaptive plasticity occurs in response to brain injury, where the brain "reroutes" or "sprouts" new connections to compensate for lost functions.
60
How does an acquired brain injury (ABI) impact a person’s biological, psychological, and social functioning?
ABI can affect motor functions (biological), cognition and behaviour (psychological), and relationships or work life (social).
61
What is chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), and why is it frequently misdiagnosed?
CTE is a degenerative brain condition caused by repeated head injuries, often seen in athletes. It is frequently misdiagnosed because its symptoms (memory loss, mood swings, and cognitive decline) overlap with other conditions like Alzheimer's or depression.
62
What are long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD)?
LTP: Strengthening of synaptic connections through repeated stimulation, which is essential for learning and memory.
LTD: Weakening of synaptic connections when there is low or no stimulation, which allows for flexibility in learning.
63
What are attributions?
Attributions are explanations that people make about the causes of their own and others’ behaviours. These can be categorised as either internal (personal factors, such as personality) or external (situational factors, such as environment).
64
What is cognitive dissonance? Provide an example.
Cognitive dissonance occurs when there is a conflict between a person's beliefs and behaviours, creating psychological discomfort. For example, if someone believes smoking is unhealthy but continues to smoke, they may experience dissonance.
65
How can cognitive dissonance be reduced?
Cognitive dissonance can be reduced by changing the conflicting belief, changing the behaviour, or rationalising the inconsistency (cognitive bias).
66
What are cognitive biases, and how do they reduce cognitive dissonance?
Cognitive biases are mental shortcuts or errors in thinking that help reduce cognitive dissonance. For example, confirmation bias (seeking out information that supports an existing belief) can ease discomfort by affirming one's views.
67
What is attitude formation, and what are the criteria for forming an attitude?
Attitude formation is the process by which people develop evaluations of others, objects, or ideas. The criteria include experiences, social interactions, and exposure to information, which shape whether an attitude is positive or negative.
68
What is the tri-component model of attitudes?
The tri-component model explains that attitudes have three components:
Affective: Emotional response to something.
Behavioral: How one acts toward something.
Cognitive: The beliefs one holds about something.
69
What are heuristics?
Heuristics are mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that people use to make decisions quickly and efficiently.
70
What are the advantages and disadvantages of using heuristics?
Advantages: They save time and mental energy when making decisions.
Disadvantages: They can lead to errors in judgment or biased thinking.
71
Define stereotyping and explain why it is problematic.
Stereotyping is the act of assigning generalised characteristics to all members of a group. It is problematic because it leads to overgeneralization, ignores individual differences, and can contribute to prejudice and discrimination.
72
What is the difference between prejudice and discrimination?
Prejudice is a negative attitude or feeling toward an individual based solely on their membership in a particular group.
Discrimination is the behaviour that results from prejudice, involving unfair treatment of individuals based on their group membership.
73
How are stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination linked in the tri-component model?
Affective: Prejudice stems from emotional responses.
Cognitive: Stereotypes are formed from beliefs.
Behavioral: Discrimination is the behavioural outcome of these attitudes.
74
What is conformity, and what factors affect it?
Conformity is the act of changing one’s behaviour or beliefs to match those of a group. Factors that affect conformity include group size, unanimity, and perceived authority.
75
What is obedience, and what factors affect it?
Obedience is following the commands of an authority figure. Factors include proximity to authority, legitimacy of authority, and group conformity.
76
Summarise Milgram’s experiment on obedience.
Milgram's experiment aimed to test the extent to which individuals would obey authority, even if it meant harming others. Participants were instructed to deliver electric shocks to a learner. The results showed that a majority were willing to follow orders, despite moral conflict
77
What is attention?
Attention refers to focusing on specific stimuli in the environment while ignoring others. It can be selective, divided, or sustained.
78
What are the three different types of attention?
Selective attention: Focusing on one task or stimulus while ignoring others.
Divided attention: Splitting focus between multiple tasks.
Sustained attention: Maintaining focus on a task over a prolonged period.
79
What is the difference between sensation and perception?
Sensation is the process by which sensory receptors detect stimuli, while perception is the interpretation of those sensory inputs by the brain.
80
How do sensation and perception differ in gustation (taste)?
Sensation in gustation involves the detection of taste by taste buds, while perception is the brain’s interpretation of those tastes, influenced by past experiences, expectations, and context.
81
What are psychological factors that affect vision?
Psychological factors include past experiences, emotions, and expectations, all of which can shape how visual information is perceived.
82
What are Gestalt principles of visual perception?
Gestalt principles explain how we naturally organise visual information into meaningful patterns or wholes. These include figure-ground, closure, proximity, and similarity.
83
What are visual constancies?
Visual constancies refer to our ability to perceive objects as maintaining stable properties (e.g., size, shape, brightness) despite changes in distance or lighting.
84
What is the perceptual set, and what factors affect it in vision?
Perceptual set refers to a mental predisposition to perceive something in a certain way. Factors include expectations, culture, context, and emotional state.
85
What are binocular depth cues?
Binocular depth cues rely on the use of both eyes to perceive depth and include retinal disparity (the 6-7cm gap difference in images between the two eyes) and convergence (the degree to which eyes turn inward to focus on an object).
86
What are monocular depth cues?
Monocular depth cues use one eye to judge depth and include pictorial depth cues, such as linear perspective, texture gradient, interposition, and relative size.
87
What are psychological factors that affect taste?
Psychological factors include the influence of food packaging, appearance, and past experiences, which can alter taste perception.
88
What biological factors affect taste?
Biological factors include genetics, which can make some people more sensitive to certain tastes, and age, as taste sensitivity tends to decline with age.
89
How do social factors influence taste?
Social factors, such as cultural norms, family preferences, and peer influence, can shape what flavors individuals like or dislike.
90
What are perceptual distortions?
Perceptual distortions occur when the way we perceive sensory information does not align with reality, such as in the case of visual or auditory illusions.
91
What are visual illusions, and what causes them?
Visual illusions are distortions in visual perception caused by environmental, biological, or psychological factors. For example, the Müller-Lyer illusion involves misperceiving the length of lines due to arrow-like endings.
92
What is agnosia, and what are the two types?
Agnosia is a disorder where a person cannot recognize objects, even though their sensory organs are functioning properly. The two types are visual agnosia (difficulty recognizing objects) and prosopagnosia (difficulty recognizing faces).
93
What is the fallibility of gustatory perception?
The fallibility of gustatory perception refers to how our sense of taste can be easily influenced by factors like color intensity, texture, and perceptual set.
94
How does perceptual set affect flavor judgment?
Perceptual set affects how flavors are perceived based on expectations, such as when food packaging or the color of food influences what we think it will taste like
95
Definition of long term potentiation- need word-for word
Long-term potentiation - the long-lasting and experience-dependent strengthening of synaptic connections that are regularly coactivated.
96
Definition of long term depression- need word-for word
Long-term depression the long-lasting and experience-dependent weakening of synaptic connections between neurons that are not regularly coactivated
97
Ways to reduce predjudice, discrimination, stigma etc.
1) Interpersonal contact
2) Education
3) Social media
4) Laws
98
What is the key words in the defintion for heuristics
mental shortcuts
99
What is the key word in the defintion for sterotypes
generalisations
100
What is the key words in the defintion for attributions
an evaluation for the cause of behaviour
101
What is the key words in the defintion for person perception
mental process/ first impression
102
What words must be included in questions including distinguish
Wereas, in comparison, on the other hand etc.
103
What is the difference between Direct and Indirect discrimination
Direct discrimination is outward and obviously discriminatory- Indirect is a blanket rule that unfairly affects a certain group of people
104
What are the 2 types of explicit memories
Semantic and Episodic
105
What is the explicit memory type of semantic memories + example
Type of explicit memory that is factual in nature(general knowledge or facts) and is set in stone and something like knowing there are 7 continents
106
What is the explicit memory type of episodic memories + example
A type of explicit memory that consists of personal experiences or event
These memories are unique to each individual
Like what you ate for dinner last night
107
What is both the Explicit memories encoded by
Amygdala and hippocampus
108
What is both the Explicit Stored by
Neocortex
109
What is the differnce between explicit and implicit memories
Explicit- Declarative memory, verbally aticulated and voulantaryly recieved
Implicit- non-verbally retrieved, involuntary retrieved
110
What is the type of implicit memory
Procedual memory
111
What is procedual memory and example
How to carry out tasks that are facilitated by motor skills
Example knowing how to: tie your shoelaces, kick a ball
112
Where are procedual memories encoded
It is encoded
(processing and manipulating the memory into a useable language )by the amygdala (encodes the emotional components of the memory )
Or
Hippocampus
113
Where are procedual memories stored
Basal ganglia
114
What is the known answer to one of the multiple choice questions
GUSTATORY SYNAESTHESIA
Experiencing sensations of taste when they perceive certain words
115
What is the definition of psychology
The scientific study of the human mental state and behaviours
116
What is the main function of a model
Simplify and represent
116
What is a scientific model
A representation of a concept, process or behaviour often made to simplify or make something easier to understand
117
Types of extraneous and confounding variables
1) participant related differences
2) Order effects
3) the placebo effect
4) Demand characteristics
5) Experimenter effect
6) Situational variables
7) Non-standardized instructions and procedures
118
What is the key words for the different types of sampling
Convenience- readily available or easily accessible
Random- every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected
Stratafied- strata, reprensentative
119
Enviromental factors that influence Psycological development
1. Emotional enviroment
2. Socio cultural enviroment
3. Learning enviroment
4. Prenatal enviroment
5. Physical enviroment
120
What is the theory of mind
individuals ability to attribute and understand mental states, beliefs, experiences, and emotions of oneself and others (understanding ours and others emotions and why they are occurring)
121
Theory of attachment
A long- lasting bond between two individuals (In attachment theory attachment typically refers to a bond between an infant and their primary caregiver )
122
Key principles of jean piagets work
Assimilation
Accommodation
123
The 4 stages of the Jean Piagets theory
The sensorimotor stage
The Pre-operational stage
The Concrete operational stage
The formal operational stage
124
The 2 Key cognitive accomplishments of the sensorimotor stage
Object permenance
Goal directed behaviours
125
The 5 Key cognitive accomplishments of the Pre- operational stage
Ego centrism
Animism
Transformation
Centration
Reversibility
126
The 2 Key cognitive accomplishments of the concrete operational stage
Conservation
Classification
127
The 2 Key cognitive accomplishments of the formal operalisation stage
Logical thinking
Abstract thinking
128
The stages in Albert banduras bobo doll experiment
1. Modelling
2. Aggression arousal
3. Test for delayed imitation
129
The 5 stages of social learning theory
Attention
Retention
Reproduction
Motivation
Reinforcement
130
Criterias for classifying typical and atypical behaviour
Cultural perspectives
Social norms
Statistical rareity
Personal distress
Maladaptive behaviour
131
Signs and symptoms of ASD
Poor communication and social skills (struggles with empathy, active listening or handling rejection)
Lacks the ability to understand emotional and social cues (struggles with reading body language and inability to attribute)
Poor non-verbal communication skills (struggles with maintaining eye contact, reading and expressing facial expressions)
Struggles to form and maintain long-term friendships (struggles with many short term friendships)
132
4 symptoms of ADHD
Inattention
Hyperactivity
Impulsivity
Lack of control over behaviour
133
Cognitive variations
Executive function
Working memory
Arousal and alertness
Time estimation
134
2 structual neuroimaging scans
Computerised tomography (CT)
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
135
2 functional neuroimaging techniques
Functions Magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
Positron emission tomography (PET)
136
What is synaptogenesis
The formation of synapses between neurons as axon terminals and dendrites grow
This results in them becoming stronger or ‘bushier’
137
What is synaptic pruning
The elimination or pruning of underused synapses to free up space for new connections and allow for strengthening of other synapses.
138
What is myleination
The formation and development of the myelin sheath around the axon of a neuron. This allows messages and transmissions to move quicker and smoother with less chance of interruption. The myelin sheath acts as an insulator as the message flows through. Typically myleination is shown or MRIs as ‘white matter’
139
What is sprouting
The ability of neurons to develop new branches on the dendrites or axons.
140
What is re-routing
The ability of the neuron synapses to disconnect from damaged neurons and connect to undamaged ones, making up for the damaged neurons
141
What are ABIs
Aquired brain injuries, An acquired brain injury refers to all types of brain injuries that occur after birth. It is an umbrella term for two types of acquired brain injuries, traumatic brain injuries and non-traumatic brain injuries
142
What is TBI
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) occurs when there is sudden physical trauma to the brain from an external force. TBI is a leading cause of death and disability in children and young adults across the world, and can occur when a person’s head violently comes into contact with an object
143
When is CTE diagnosed
In a post-mortem
144
What is the protein that builds up in a CTE patients brain
p-tau
145
How many stages are there in CTE
4, (1- headaches and loss of concentration) (2- memory loss, depression, mood swings) (3- Executive dysfunction, severe memory loss, Visuospatial difficulties) (4- Dementia, Language difficulties, Paranoia, Suicidal tendencies, dificulty walking)
146
Key word in Sustained attention definition
High degree of attention over a prolonged period
147
Key word in Selective attention definition
Focus on a single activity whilst disregarding other enviromental stimuli yet still remain consiously aware of other stimulis
148
Divided
distributing ones attention to allow for the processing of two or more stimuli at the same time (often one or more of the tasks wrequire very little attention)
149
What is the 2 types of processing
Top-down and bottom-up
150
What is top - down processing
drawing on past experiences to interpret stimuli then adjust according to expectations leading to a perception to be formed
151
What is bottom-up processing
Analysing the specific features or elements of a stimulus, then creating a whole picture from those elements and creating a perception that way.
152
Give an example of top-down and bottom-up processing
For example, you may use top-down processing to assume something is happening, like if you see some smoke in the sky coming from a forest we might use the top-down processing to assume there is a forest fire, which may lead to you panicking, upon further exploration you see a group of people crowding around, relaxed, your bottom-up processing then kicks in, you see that everyone is relaxed, in an open, wide space and some kids are roasting marshmallows on the big fire and you come to the assumption this is not in fact a bush fire, but a controlled bonfire.
153
What is the binocular depth cue of retinal disparity
Retinal disparity: Retinal disparity refers to the brain detecting similarities and differences between the information being sent from each eye, due to the pupils of our eyes being 6–7 cm apart
154
What is the binocular depth cue of convergence
Convergence involves the inward turning of the eyes, which is detected by the brain as tension changes in the muscles surrounding the eye
155
What is the monocular depth cue
Accommodation, he ability of the eye to change focus from near to distant objects and back again. The lens of the eyes bulges (ciliary contracts) when focusing on nearby objects and flattens (ciliary relaxes) when focusing on far away objects
156
What is in the perceptual set
Past experiences, Memory, Motivation, Context
157
What is perceptual constancy
Size constancy, shape constancy, orientation constancy
158
What are the gestalt principles
Figure-ground, closure, Proximity, Similarity
159
What are the 2 types of visual agnosia
Apperceptive visual agnosia and assosiative visual agnosia
160
Apperceptive visual agnosia
Someone with apperceptive visual agnosia cannot process or perceive certain stimuli (e.g. familiar objects or familiar places).No perception and no recognition
161
Associative visual agnosia
Someone with apperceptive visual agnosia can process or perceive certain stimuli (e.g. familiar objects or familiar places). Perception but no recognition
162
What is prosopagnosia
This kind of visual agnosia involves an inability to recognise the faces of familiar people, despite having no memory dysfunction, memory loss or impaired visual sensation.
163
What is the difference between direct person perception and indirect person perception
Direct- Information, collected by us from the person we are judging through observation or interaction with them (primary data)
Indirect- Formed through hearing about the person from another person or source. (secondary data)
164
What are the cognitive biases
The halo effect
Actor-observer bias
Self-serving bias
Conformation bias
False consensus bias
165
What is the Halo effect
The halo effect describes the tendency to believe that one positive or negative quality of a person means that all their qualities and actions are also good or bad respectively.
This can also lead to perceiving attractive people as good and moral and unattractive people as bad and immoral
166
What is the actor observer bias
Refers to our tendency to attribute our own behaviour to external or situational factors, yet attribute others behaviours to internal factors.
167
What is the self-serving bias
When judging ourselves we tend to credit successes to ourselves and deny responsibilities for failures, blaming it on external factors.
168
What is the confirmation bias
The tendency to look for actions, characteristics and information that aligns with our beliefs and ignore contradictory information.
169
What is the false concensus bias
This is the tendency to overestimate the degree to which people share the same ideas and attitudes as we do
170
What is internal attribution
When we judge behaviour as being caused by something personal within an individual . This may be because of their psychological state, age, gender, intellect, motivation, ability, desire, past behaviour and personality.
171
What is external attribution
Occurs when we determine the cause of something is due to situational factors occurring outside of the person and out of their control. This may be due to the physical environment a person was in or events that transpired beyond the persons control
172
3 Steps of the cognitive process
Step 1- Observation of an outward act or behaviour
Step 2- Conscious determination of the behaviour (deciding what the behaviour is)
Step 3- Attribute causes to the observed behaviour (decide why someone was exhibiting the behaviour/ action)
173
Fundamental attribution error
The tendency to explain others behaviours in terms of internal factors and ignoring external factors whilst attributing our behaviour to external factors.
174
3 Steps to attitude formation
1- The attitude must be an evaluation of something
2- The attitude must be settled and stable
3- The attitude must be learnt through experience
175
What are the three factors that affect obedience
Status of authority figure
Social Proximity (Emotional and Physicial )
Group pressure
176
What is group shift
A condition of which the influence of the group causes an individual to adopt a more extreme position. The more influential a group is , the greater chance of conformity
177
What is group think
A psychological phenomenon in which assumed group unanimity overrules individuals realistic appraisal of consequences
178
What is deindividulization
The tendency for individuals to lose their sense of identity within a group which increases the chance of conformity. When we feel anonymous we are more likely to do questionable things.
