Psych Exam 2 Flashcards
Memory
the retention of information or experience over time
Encoding
the process by which information gets into memory storage
Selective attention
focusing on a specific aspect of experiences while ignoring others
Divided attention
concentrating on more than one activity at the same time
sustained attention
the ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time
levels of processing
a continuum from shallow to intermediate to deep
shallow processing
physical and perceptual features are analyzed
intermediate processing
stimulus is recognized and labeled
deep processing
semantic, meaningful, and symbolic characteristics are used
elaboration
the formation of a number of different connections around a stimulus at any level of encoding
Atkinson-Shiffrin theory
separates memory storage into sensory memory, short term memory, and long term memory
sensory memory
holds information from the world in it original sensory form for only an instant
echoic memory
auditory sensory memory
iconic memory
visual sensory memory
short term memory
a limited-capacity memory system in which information is retained for only 30 seconds
chunking
grouping information that exceeds the 7±2 memory span so it can be remembered as single units
rehearsal
the conscious repetition of information
working memory
a combination of components including short term memory and attention, that allow us to hold information temporarily as we perform tasks, 3 components, phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, and the central executive
phonological loop
specialized to briefly store speech based information about the sounds of language
visuo-spatial sketckpad
stores visual and spatial information
central executive
integrates information from the phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, and long-term memory, important to attention, planning, and organizing
Long-term memory
relatively permanent type of memory that stores huge amounts of information for a long time
explicit memory
the conscious recollection of information such as specific facts and events, hippocampus, temporal lobes, limbic system
episodic memory
part of explicit memory, the retention of information about the where, when, and what
semantic memory
part of explicit memory, a persons knowledge about the world
implicit memory
memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience without the conscious recollection of that experience, three parts, procedural memory, classical conditioning, and priming, cerebellum
procedural memory
involves memory for skills
priming
the activation of information that people already have in storage to help them remember new information better
schema
a preexisting mental concept or framework that helps to organize and interpret information
retrieval
when information that was retained in memory comes out of storage
serial position effect
the tendency to recall items at the beginning and end of a list more readily
primacy effect
better recall for items at the beginning of the list
recency effect
better recall for items at the end of the list
recall
a memory task in which the person must retrieve previously learned information
recognition
a memory task in which the person only has to recognize learned items
encoding specificity principle
information present at the time of encoding or learning tends to be effective as a retrieval cue
context-dependent memory
people remember better when they attempt to recall information in the same context in which they learned it
autobiographical memory
a special form a episodic memory, a persons recollections of their own life experiences
flashbulb memory
the memory of emotionally significant events
motivated forgetting
occurs when individuals forget something because it is too painful or anxiety laden
ebbinghaus’s forgetting curve
memorized 13 nonsense syllables and assessed how many he could remember as time passed, even after an hour he could only remember a few, concluded forgetting takes place soon after we learn something
interference theory
people forget not because memories are lost from storage but because other information gets in the way
proactive interference
occurs when material that was learned earlier disrupts the recall of information learned later
retroactive interference
occurs when material that was learned layer disrupts the recall of information learned earlier
decay theory
the passage of time always increases forgetting
tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
a type of effortful retrieval that occurs when we are confident we know something but can’t quite pull it out of memory
amnesia
the loss of memory
anterograde amnesia
a memory disorder that affects the retention of new information and events
retrograde amnesia
involves memory loss for a segment of the past but not for new events
cognition
how information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing
artificial intelligence
focuses on creating machines capable of performing activities that require intelligence when they are done by people
thinking
involves manipulating information mentally by forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions, and reflecting in a critical or creative manner
concepts
mental categories that are used to group objects, events, and characteristics
problem solving
finding an appropriate way to attain a goal when the goal is not readily available
prototype model
emphasizes that when people evaluate whether a given item reflects a certain concept, they compare the item with the most typical items in that category
subgoals
intermediate goals or problems to solve that put us in a better position for reaching the final goal or solution
algorithms
strategies that guarantee a solution to a problem
heuristics
shortcut strategies or guidelines that suggest a solution to a problem but don’t guarantee an answer
functional fixedness
when individuals fail to solve a problem because they are fixated on a things usual functions
reasoning
the mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions
inductive reasoning
reasoning from specific observations to make generalizations
deductive reasoning
reasoning from a general case that we know to be true to a specific instance
decision making
evaluating alternatives and choosing among them
loss aversion
the tendency to strongly prefer to avoid losses compared to acquiring gains
confirmation bias
the tendency to search for and use information that supports our ideas rather than refutes them
hindsight bias
our tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that we accurately predicted the outcome
availability heuristic
a prediction about the probability of an event based on the ease of recalling or imagining similar events
base rate neglect
the tendency to ignore information about general principles in favor of very specific but vivid information
representativeness heuristic
the tendency to make judgments about group memberships based on physical appearances or the match between a person and one’s stereotype of a group rather than on available base rate information
critical thinking
thinking reflectively and productively and evaluating the evidence
mindfulness
being alert and mentally present for ones everyday activities
divergent thinking
produces many solutions to the same problem
convergent thinking
produces the single best solution to a problem
intelligence
an all-purpose ability to do well on cognitive tasks, to solve problems, and to learn from experience
validity
the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure
reliability
the extent to which a test gives a consistent, reproducible measure of performance
Intelligence quotient
an individual’s mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by 100
normal distribution
a symmetrical bell-shaped curve, with a majority of the scores falling in the middle of the possible range and a few scores appearing towards the extremes
culture fair tests
intelligence tests that are intended to be culturally unbiased
triarchic theory of intelligence
intelligence comes in multiple forms, analytical, creative, and practical
infinite generativity
the ability to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences
phonology
the languages sound system
morphology
a languages rules for word formation
syntax
a languages rules for combining words to form acceptable phrases and sentences
semantics
the meaning of words and sentences in a particular language
pragmatics
the useful character of language and the ability of language to communicate even more meaning than is said
Chomsky’s theory of language development
humans come into the world biologically prewired to learn language at a certain time and in a certain way
developement
the pattern of continuity and change in human characteristics that occurs throughout the course of life
cross-sectional designs
several people are assessed at one time
longitudinal study
assesses the same participants multiple times over a lengthy period
nature
a persons biological inheritance
nurture
a persons environmental and social experiences
resilience
a persons ability to recover from or adapt to difficult times
prenatal development
germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods
germinal period
weeks 1 and 2, zygote goes through cell divisions and attaches to the uterine wall
embryonic period
weeks 3-8, zygote becomes an embryo, support systems are developed, organs appear, neural tube forms
fetal period
2 to 9 months, begins to grow in size and move
teratogen
any agent that causes a problem in prenatal development
cognitive development
how thought, intelligence, and language processes change as people mature
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
human beings use schemas to make sense of their experience, people use assimilation and accommodation to adapt their schemas, development is in 4 stages
assimilation
people incorporate new information into preexisting schemas
accommodation
people change their schemas in response to new experiences
sensorimotor stage
birth to age two, coordinating sensory experiences with physical actions
object permanence
crucial accomplishment in the sensorimotor stage, understanding that objects continue to exist even if they can’t be seen or heard
preoperational stage
age 2-7, represents the world with words and images, more symbolic and egocentric
concrete operational stage
age 7-11, can now reason logically about concrete events and classify objects into different sets, can reverse operations
formal operational stage
age 11-15, more abstract thought, hypothetical-deductive reasoning
executive function
complex, cognitive processes
temperament
an individuals behavior style and characteristic ways of responding
infant attachment
the close emotional bond between an infant and its caregiver
secure attachment
how infants use their caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the environment
Eriksons theory of socioemotional development
8 stages of development from infancy to adulthood
trust vs. mistrust
infancy to 1.5, trust requires physical comfort and minimal amount of fear about the future
autonomy vs. shame and doubt
1.5 to 3, after gaining trust, infants discover they have a will of their own, assert independence and if not allowed they have shame/doubt
initiative vs. guilt
3 to 5, widening social worlds, assuming more responsibility,
industry vs. inferiority
6 to puberty, growing intelligence
identitiy vs. identity confusion
10 to 20, figuring out your identity
intimacy vs. isolation
20s and 30s, having partners
generativity vs. stagnation
40s and 50s, want to assist the younger generation
integrity vs. despair
60s and on, looking back on their lives
authoritarian parenting
strict and punitive, limits and controls the child with little verbal exchange
authoritative parenting
encourages the child to be independent, but still places limits, more collaborative
neglectful parenting
lack of parental involvement
permissive parenting
places few limits, lets the children do whatever they want
emerging adulthood
the transitional period from adolescence to adulthood
gender
the social and psychological aspects of ones experience as male, female, or other
gender identity
a persons inner concept of self on the gender spectrum
gender role
the types of behaviors society expects of people of different genders
gender similarities hypothesis
the idea that people of different genders are much more similar than they are different
Kohlbergs theory of moral reasoning
created stages of moral development, preconventional, conventional, and postconventional
preconventional stage
moral reasoning is based on consequences
conventional stage
moral reasoning abides by standards learned from parents and social law
postconventional stage
moral reasoning recognizes alternative options, explores the options, and develops a personal moral code
prosocial behavior
behavior that is intended to benefit other people
motivation
the force that moves people to behave, think, and feel the way they do
instinct
an innate biological pattern of behavior that is assumed to be universal throughout a species
need
physical or biological deprivation that energizes the drive to eliminate or reduce that deprivation
drive
an aroused state that occurs because of a physiological need
drive reduction theory
as the drive becomes stronger, we are motivated to reduce it
homeostasis
the bodys tendency to remain at equilibrium, goal of drive reduction theory
yerkes-dodson law
performance is best under conditions of moderate arousal, not low or high arousal
Maslows hierarchy of human needs
from the strongest to weakest needs, physiological, safety, love and belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization
self-actualization
the motivation to develop one full potential
self-determination theory
there are three basic organismic needs: competence, relatedness, and autonomy
intrinsic motivation
based on internal factors
extrinsic motivation
based on external factors
self-regulation
the process by which an individual effortfully controls behavior to pursue important objectives
James-Lange theory
emotion results from physiological states triggered by stimuli in the environment
Cannon-Bard theory
emotion and physiological reactions occur simultaneously
two-factor theory of emotion
emotion is determined by two factors: physiological arousal and cognitive labeling
facial feedback hypothesis
facial expressions can influence emotions as well as reflect them
display rules
sociocultural standards that determine when, where, and how emotions should be expressed
valence
whether it is pleasant or unpleasant
personality
a pattern of enduring, distinctive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors, that characterizes the way a person adapts to the world
psychodynamic perspectives
emphasizes that personality is primarily unconscious
id
unconscious drives, seeks pleasure
ego
deals with the demands of reality, attempts to bring pleasure within the restrictions of reality, partially conscious
superego
internal judge of our behaviors, evaluates morality, considers if the ids impulses can be satisfied in societies norms
defense mechanisms
tactics the ego uses to reduce anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality
denial
ego refuses to acknowledge anxiety-producing realities
displacement
directing unacceptable impulses at a less threatening target
repression
pushes unacceptable impulses into the unconscious mind
oral stage
first 18 months, pleasure centers in the mouth
anal stage
18 to 36 months, pleasure involves the anus and urethra and their functions
phallic stage
3 to 6 years, pleasure focuses on genitals
latency period
6 to puberty, child sets aside all interest in sexuality
genital stage
adolescence and adulthood, a time of sexual awakening
humanistic perspectives
stresses conscious awareness and a person’s capacity for growth and positive qualities
unconditional positive regard
Rogers term for being accepted, valued, and treated positively regardless of one’s behavior
conditions of worth
the standards we must live up to in order to receive positive regard from others
self-concept
our conscious representation of who we are and who we wish to become
trait theories
personality consists of broad, enduring traits that lead to characteristic responses
big five factors of personality
the broad traits that are thought to describe the main dimensions of personality; extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and neuroticism
openness to experience
imaginative and interested in cognitively engaging with abstract ideas
conscientiousness
reliable, hard-working, dependable
extraversion
outgoing, sociable, lively
agreeableness
kind, nice, trusting
neuroticism
a worrier, anxious, insecure
social cognitive perspectives
emphasize conscious awareness, beliefs, expectations, and goals, explore the persons ability to reason
Bandura’s social cognitive theory
behavior, environment, and person/cognitive factors are all important when understanding personality
reciprocal determinism
describes the way behavior, environment, and person/cognitive factors interact to create personality
internal locus of control
a sense of behavioral control as coming from inside the person
external locus of control
a sense of behavioral control as coming from outside the person
self-efficacy
the belief that one has the competence to accomplish a given goal or task
self-report tests
directly asks people whether specific items describe their personality traits
empirically keyed test
a type of self-report test that is created by first identifying two groups that are known to be different on the variable one wants to measure
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
a type of empirically keyed test, it is used to assess mental health, make employment decisions, and in forensic settings
face validity
a test item has face validity if it seems on the surface to fit the trait in question
projective tests
presents people with an ambiguous stimulus and asks them to describe it or to tell a story about it
Rorschach inkblot test
test has 10 cards that you view one at a time, and you describe what you see in the inkblots
thematic apperception test (TAT)
designed to elicit stories that reveal a person’s unconscious motivations, it consists of a series of pictures and the taker is asked to tell a story about each of the pictures
