Psych Exam 1 Flashcards
psychology
the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
critical thinking
the process of thinking deeply and actively, asking questions, and evaluating the evidence
William Wundt
A German philosopher-physician who founded structuralism, he measured the time between when a student heard a sound and when they pressed a key to signal they heard it
Structuralism
a perspective for the early history of psychology that focused on breaking down mental processes into their structure or basic parts
Functionalism
A perspective from the early history of psychology that focused on the function of our mental processes and behaviors (tries to determine what our mental processes are for)
William James
Father of psychology in the U.S., founded functionalism
Sigmund Freud
popularized psychology in the U.S. and around the world in the late 1800s,
behavioral approach
a perspective in psychology that emphasizes observable behavior over internal mental processes
humanistic approach
a perspective that emphasizes the notion that human nature is generally good and people are naturally motivated to grow toward their own potential
Sociocultural approach
a perspective in psychology that influences of culture and social events on behavior and mental processes
evolutionary approach
emphasizes charles darwins theory of evolution as an influence on behavior
cognitive approach
emphasizes processes such as thinking, language, attention, memory, and intelligence
neuroscience
study of structure, function, development, genetics, and biochemistry of the nervous system
biopsychosocial approach
a uniquely comprehensive popular perspective in psychology that emphasizes biological, psychological, and social factors as influences on behavior.
Confirmed Bias
A tendency to prefer information that confirms what you thought in the first place
Belief perseverance
A tendency to maintain a belief even when evidence suggests it is incorrect
Descriptive research
research in which the goal is simply to describe a characteristics of the population
Correlational research
research in which the goal is to determine the relationship between two variables.
Correlation coefficient
a statistic that shows the relationship between two variables, ranging from highly positive (+1) to highly negative (-1). It means that as one variable goes up, the other variable goes up with it.
correlation-causation fallacy
The mistaken belief that when two variables correlate strongly with each other, one must cause the other.
Experimental research
research in which the goal is to determine the cause and effect relationship between two variables by manipulating one and observing changes in the other.
Random assignment
a procedure in experimental research by which the assignment of participants into either experimental or control group happens entirely by chance.
Independent Variable
A variable that is manipulated by the researchers
Dependent variable
a variable that is expected to depend u[on the independent variable
experimental group
the group of participants who receive the treatment that is the focus of the study
control group
the group of participants who did not receive the treatment that is the focus of the study
placebo effect
the effect of expectation rather than the experimental manipulations
Scientific method
a way of asking and answering questions that follows a predetermined series of steps: posing a question, conducting a literature review, developing a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis by collecting data, and analyzing the data and drawing conclusions.
Theory
A proposed explanation for observed events
hypothesis
a prediction; typically based on a theory; that can be tested
Naturalistic observation
psychologists collect data from participants by visiting them in the real-world location where their behavior happens naturally
surveys
A set of questions addressed to a group of people about their behavior or attitudes
Case study
A small number of psychologists conduct research in which the sample consists of just one person (or a very small group) studied in great depth
Neurons
the cells that facilitate communication within the nervous system.
Dendrites
branches at the end of neurons that receive signals from other neurons
Cell body (soma
the large central region of a neuron that performs the basic activities, including the production of energy, to keep the neuron functional
Axon
the part of the neuron that carries information toward other neurons
myelin sheath
a protective sleeve of fatty material that surrounds the axon
action potential
the release, or firing, of an electrical impulse that travels through the axon
synapse
a gap between two connecting neurons
neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that travel across synapses from one neuron to the next
Acetylcholine
neurotransmitter that stimulates the firing of neurons and is a part of memory, learning, and the action of muscles
dopamine
neurotransmitter involved in reward system and in movement
serotonin
neurotransmitters involved in mood and possibly sleep and appetite
endorphins
are neurotransmitters involved in reducing pain and increasing pleasure
norepinephrine
inhibits the firing of neurons in the central nervous system, but excites the heart, intestines, and urogenital tract
agonist
drugs that impact the neurotransmitters
antagonist
inhibits the agonist
Brain stem
the part of the brain that connects to the spine and controls the functions most essential to staying alive
cerebellum
the part of the brain near the bottom and back primarily involved in balance and the coordination of movement
medulla
the part of the brainstem most specifically involved in heartbeat and breathing
Thalamus
the brains main sensory processing center, located near the center of the brain
limbic system
a cluster of brain areas involved primarily in emotion
hypothalamus
is the part of the limbic system involved in maintaining steadiness in bodily functions
hippocampus
the part of the limbic system involved in memory, especially spatial memory and long-term memory
amygdala
part of the limbic system involved most directly in emotions, especially fear.
cerebrum (forebrain)
is the upper front part of the brain, which consists of two hemispheres and is involved in sophisticated, often uniquely human abilities.
cerebral cortex
the outer layer of the cerebrum, where sensory information is processed
right cerebral hemisphere
controls the left side of the body, nonverbal information
left cerebral hemisphere
is paired with the right side of the body, speech
corpus callosum
the bundle of neurons that connects and allows communication between the two cerebral hemisphere
frontal lobe
the part of the cerebral cortex right behind the forehead, which is involved in complex thinking tasks, planning, purposeful action, and other advanced functions.
parietal lobe
the part of the brain near the top and back of the head involved in touch and perception
temporal lobe
the lower middle part of the brain, involved in hearing and speech production
occipital lobe
the lower back part of the brain involved with vision
motor cortex
the strip of brain matter near the back of the frontal lobe involved in voluntary movement
somatosensory cortex
a strip of the brain matter near the front of the parietal lobe involved in receiving information from the senses.
Broca’s area
a part of the left side of the frontal lobe heavily involved in speaking
Broca’s aphasia
is the speech dysfunction caused by damage to Broca’s area
Wernicke’s aphasia
dysfunction in understanding or creating coherent speech caused by damage to Wernicke’s area.
plasticity
the ability of the brain to adapt its structure or function in response to damage or experience.
Nervous system
full set of nerves that connect your brain with all the other parts of your body.
central nervous system
the brain and the spinal cord
peripheral nervous system
the neurons that connect the central nervous system to other parts of the body
somatic nervous system
part of the peripheral nervous system that has afferent nerves and efferent nerves that send messages from muscles and skin
autonomic nervous system
part of the peripheral nervous system that connects the central nervous system to the parts of the body you control involuntarily
sympathetic division
part of your autonomic nervous system that revs your body up in response to stressors
parasympathetic division
is the part of your autonomic nervous system that calms your body down when stressors decrease
hormones
chemicals made by the glands of the endocrine system, affect certain tissues throughout the body
cortisol
the stress hormone
Sensations
the ability of your sensory organs to pick up energy in the environment around you and transmit it to your brain
absolute threshold
the minimum level of a stimulus necessary for you to detect its presence at least half of the time.
difference threshold
the smallest change in a stimulus necessary for you to detect it at least half of the time
sensory adaptation
the tendency of a person’s sensation of a stimulus to decrease when the stimulus remains constant
Habituation
when you decrease or stop responding to a stimulus that repeats or stays constant
perceptual set
a predisposition to perceive something in a particular way
selective attention
paying more attention to one sensory channel than others
change blindness
a failure to notice changes in your visual field simply because you expect otherwise
inattentional blindness
a failure to notice something in your visual field simply because your attention was focused elsewhere
Bottom-up processing
a way of processing information in which what you sense becomes a perception with no influence of expectation or previous experiences
top-down processing
a way of processing information in which what your expectations or previous experiences influence what you perceive
Vision
your sense of sight, dominates the human senses
Retina
the rear part of the eyeball that receives visual stimulation and sends it to the brain via the optic nerve
Rods
are receptors cells in the retina that detect shades of gray and allow us to see in low light
Cones
are receptors cells in the retina that detect color when light is plentiful
depth perception
is your ability to judge the distance and depth of objects
Binocular depth cues
qualities of visual stimuli that indicate depth when you use both eyes
monocular depth cues
qualities of visual stimuli that indicate depth when you use only one eye
wavelength/color hue
the color of light determined by it’s wavelength
Trichromatic theory
an explanation of color vision based on the idea that your cones are specialized to sense either red, green, or blue
opponent- process theory
an explanation of color vision based on the idea that your visual system is specialized to sense specific opposite pairs of colors
Gestalt principles: figure-ground principle
your tendency to visually distinguish between an object and its background
Audition
the sense of hearing
Cochlea
the spiral fluid-filled structure in the inner ear that sends sound waves to the brain via the auditory nerve
wavelength/pitch
the description of how “high” or “low” a sound is
olfaction
is your sense of smell
gustation
your sense of taste
somatosenses
are the senses you experiences through your skin, primarily touch
Kinesthetic sense
is your sense of the position and movement of your body parts
Vestibular Sense
the sense of balance
Consciousness
your awareness of yourself and your surroundings
Circadian rhythm
the 24-hour cycle on which your brain and body function
Stages of sleep (non-REM sleep and REM sleep)
N1, N2, N3, REM
N1
theta waves
N2
spindles
N3
deepest sleep, delta waves
REM
vivid dreams
Insomnia
a sleep disorder featuring consistent difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or achieving high-quality sleep
Narcolepsy
a disorder of “sleep attacks” characterized by immediate and unexpected shifts from wakefulness to REM sleep
Sleep apnea
a sleep disorder caused by interruptions of breathing that cause repeated waking
hypnosis
an altered state of consciousness in which one person, the participant, becomes very suggestible to another person, the hypnotists
psychoactive drugs
substances that alter mental functioning
Tolerance
decreased effectiveness of a particular amount of a drug
withdrawal
stressful and uncomfortable symptoms caused by discontinuing a drug that had become habitual
physical dependence
a bodily need for a particular drug in order to function normally
psychological dependence
a mental need for a particular drug in order to function normally
Depressants
drugs that slow bodily functions
Examples: Alcohol
Stimulants
drugs that speed up bodily functions
Examples: cocaine, crack, Adderall, Ritalin, concerta, vyvanse
hallucinogens
drugs that produce unrealistic sensations such as hallucinations
Examples: LSD, PCP, mushrooms, Ecstasy, bath salts, cannabis, synthetic cannabis
Opiates
pain-relieving drugs made from the poppy plant. Opioids are synthetic versions of opiates.
Examples: Heroin, opium, morphine, codeine, hydrocodone, Vicodin, oxycodone, oxycontin, Percocet, Percodan
Meditation
an activity designed to increase focused attention with the ultimate purpose of improving your mental state
Mindfulness
awareness of your momen to moment experiences fully, deliberately, and without distraction
Memory
is the process of taking in information, saving it over time, and calling it to mind later
Information processing model
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Encoding
entering information into memory
Storage
retaining information in memory
Retrieval
pulling information out of memory
Sensory memory
the earliest part of the memory processes, in which the senses take in and very briefly hold information
Echoic Memory
auditory sensory memory, or all the information your ears took in during the past few seconds
Iconic memory
Visual sensory memory, or all the information you eyes took in during the last fraction of a second
Level of processing
How deeply information is processed. Also known as depth of processing
chunking
grouping pieces of information together in a meaningful way to enhance memory
Short-term Memory
a limited amount of new information being held briefly until its is either discarded or kept long-term
Long-term memory
a seemingly limitless amount of information being held for extensive periods of time.
retrieval cues
reminders that facilitate retrieval of information from memory
recall
a type of retrieval in which stored information is accessed without any comparison to external information
recognition
a type of information in which stored information is compared to external information to determine if it matches
Decay
The dwindling or loss of information for memory due to the passing of time
Massed practice
many repetitions at once, similar to cramming
distributed practice
repetitions spread over time
amnesia
the inability to remember some or all information, either temporarily or permanently
empirical method
gaining knowledge by observing events, collecting data, and reasoning logically
psychodynamic approach
emphasizes unconscious thought, and the conflict between biological drives and society’s demands, Freud thought that relationship with parents shape personality
biological approach
a focus on the body, mainly the brain and nervous system
operational definition
an objective description of how a variable is going to be measured and observed in a study
Francis Cecil Sumner
First African-American to have a Ph.D in psychology, Howard University, psychology of religion, refuting racist psychology research, and mentoring and promoting the education of African Americans
resting potential
not transmitting information, -60 to -75 millivolts
all-or-nothing principle
once the electrical impulse reaches a certain level of intensity, it fires and moves all the way down the axon without losing it intensity
GABA
keeps the neurons firing and controls the precision of the signal
glutamate
excites neurons to fire especially involved in learning and memory
oxytocin
love and bonding
reticular formation
midbrain, involved in walking, sleeping, turning to a sudden noise, stereotyped patterns
basal ganglia
control and coordinate voluntary movements with cerebellum and cerebral cortex
Brenda Millner
Dr. Milner conducted groundbreaking research on the brain. She studied memory and damage to temporal lobes, mapped the function of areas of the frontal lobe, determined the lateralization of function in the hemispheres, and demonstrated plasticity after damage. She proved that there are different memory systems, specifically episodic memory and procedural memory, considered the founder of clinical neuropsycholog
perception
organizing and interpreting sensory information
sensory receptors
register info on the external environment and send it to the brain
signal detection theory
decision-making about stimuli under conditions of uncertainty
visual cortex
occipital lobe, part of cerebral cortex involved in vision, visual information processed here
feature detectors
neurons that respond to particular features of stimulus
perceptual constancy
the recognition that objects are constant and unchanging even if sensory input about them is changing
Christine Ladd Franklin
her research interests were expanding from math and logic to the new field of psychology and specifically the visual sense. She published her first article in psychology in 1887 on binocular vision, Hopkins and Columbia let her teach a class without pay
stream of consciousness
continuous flow of changing sensations, images, thoughts, and feelings
automatic processing
states of consciousness that require little attention and do not interfere with ongoing activities
reticular activating system
regulates arousal, brain stem, medulla, thalamus
Controlled processing
most alert states of consciousness
subconscious awareness
When awake or asleep, beneath the level of conscious awareness, dreaming
unconscious thought
no awareness, Freud, reservoir of unaccepted wishes, thoughts, and feelings
biological rhythms
periodic physiological fluctuations in the body, rise and fall of hormones for example
suprachiasmatic nucleus
uses input from the retina to synchronize its own rhythm with the daily cycle of light and dark
manifest content
dreams surface content, disguises the dreams true meaning
latent content
the dreams hidden content, unconscious true meaning
cognitive theory of dreaming
proposes that we understand dreaming by applying the same cognitive concepts we use in studying the waking mind
Activation synthesis hypothesis
dreaming occurs when the cerebral cortex synthesizes neural signals generated from activity in the lower part of the brain
addiction
physical or psychological dependence to a drug
substance use disorder
psychological disorder in which the use of a psychoactive drug affects their health and abilities to work and engage in social relationships
Carl L Heart
His main research interests were studying the effects of psychoactive drugs on people (e.g., opioids, stimulants, cannabis, synthetic drugs, etc) and creating effective treatments for addiction
learning
a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience
behaviorism
a theory of learning that focuses on observable behaviors
associative learning
when we make a connection between two events, conditioning
observational learning
learning that takes place when a person observes and imitates another behavior
classical conditioning
a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and has the capacity to elicit a response, involuntary responses
Pavlovs experiment
placed meat powder in a dog’s mouth causing it to salivate, he then rang a bell before giving the meat powder, then the dog started to salivate at the noise of the bell
unconditioned stimulus
a stimulus that produces a response without prior learning
unconditioned response
an unlearned reaction to the stimulus
conditioned stimulus
previously the neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response
Watsons experiment
Had Albert play with a rat, then made a loud noise behind his head, making Albert cry, Albert started to fear the rat
conditioned response
the learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus pairing
acquisition
the initial learning of the connection between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus when they are paired
extinction
weakening of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is absent
spontaneous recovery
process in which the conditioned response can occur after a time delay without further conditioning
generalization
when a new stimulus elicits the same response
discrimination
learning to respond to certain stimuli and not others
counterconditioning
procedure for changing the relationship between the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response
Aversive conditioning
repeated pairing of a stimulus with a very unpleasant stimulus
operant conditioning
voluntary responses, a form of learning in which the consequences of behavior change the probability of that behaviors occurence
B.F. Skinner
put a hungry cat in a puzzle box and put a piece of fish outside, the cat had to learn to open the latch, eventually after accidentally opening it, the cat learned how to escape
shaping
rewarding successive approximations of a desired behavior
positive reinforcement
behavior increases because it is followed by the addition of something valuable
negative reinforcement
behavior increases because it is followed by the removal of something
learning helplessness
learns that it has no control over negative outcomes
primary reinforcer
reinforcer that does not require any learning to make it pleasurable, food for example
secondary reinforcer
acquires its positive value from the experience
positive punishment
a behavior decreases because it is followed by the addition of a stimulus
negative punishment
a behavior decreases because it is followed by the removal of a stimulus
latent learning
unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior
insight learning
a form of problem-solving in which the organism gets a sudden insight into a problems solution
Marthe E Bernal
She was the first Latina to earn a Ph.D. in Psychology in the U.S.
