PSYCH exam 2 Flashcards
Factors Influencing Learning
Part 1
What is encoding?
the act of putting information into memory
Which of the following is a reasonable explanation for why some students who get very good grades in high school get bad grades in college?
The students lack the metacognition necessary to realize that the strategies they used to get good grades in high school may not be as effective in college.
Why can patients with amnesia get better at some tasks with practice even though they do not remember completing the tasks?
They have implicit memories of how to complete the tasks.
________ occurs when a response to a repeated stimulus increases with exposure.
sensitization
Why is metacognition so important for learning and memory?
People who have good metacognition are able to adjust their learning strategies when they are not effective.
Chunk
The process of grouping information together using our knowledge.
Classical conditioning
Describes stimulus-stimulus associative learning.
Encoding
The pact of putting information into memory.
Habituation
Occurs when the response to a stimulus decreases with exposure.
Implicit learning
Occurs when we acquire information without intent that we cannot easily express.
Implicit memory
A type of long-term memory that does not require conscious thought to encode. It’s the type of memory one makes without intent.
Incidental learning
Any type of learning that happens without the intention to learn.
Intentional learning
Any type of learning that happens when motivated by intention.
Metacognition
Describes the knowledge and skills people have in monitoring and controlling their own learning and memory.
Nonassociative learning
Occurs when a single repeated exposure leads to a change in behavior.
Operant conditioning
Describes stimulus-response associative learning.
Perceptual learning
Occurs when aspects of our perception changes as a function of experience.
Sensitization
Occurs when the response to a stimulus increases with exposure
Transfer-appropriate processing
A principle that states that memory performance is superior when a test taps the same cognitive processes as the original encoding activity.
Working memory
The form of memory we use to hold onto information temporarily, usually for the purposes of manipulation
Memory
Part 2
At which stage does memory failure typically occur?
any stage
Forgetting is one type of error, where you cannot recall information. Misremembering is another type of error. Which of the following would be an example of misremembering?
You falsely recognize a definition term on an exam, remembering the word but not the concept
If new experiences disrupt recall of old experiences, this is referred to as:
retroactive interference.
Memory that is not embedded in a context is called:
semantic memory
Our experiences that directly impact our brain though neural processes are referred to as:
memory traces/engrams
Which of the following best captures how memory works?
Memories are reconstructions of the event, which makes them susceptible to inaccuracy
Autobiographical memory
Memory for the events of one’s life.
Consolidation
The process occurring after encoding that is believed to stabilize memory traces.
Cue overload principle
The principle stating that the more memories that are associated to a particular retrieval cue, the less effective the cue will be in prompting retrieval of any one memory.
Distinctiveness
The principle that unusual events (in a context of similar events) will be recalled and recognized better than uniform (nondistinctive) events.
Encoding specificity principle
The hypothesis that a retrieval cue will be effective to the extent that information encoded from the cue overlaps or matches information in the engram or memory trace.
Engrams
A term indicating the change in the nervous system representing an event; also, memory trace.
Episodic memory
Memory for events in a particular time and place.
Flashbulb memory
Vivid personal memories of receiving the news of some momentous (and usually emotional) event.
Memory traces
A term indicating the change in the nervous system representing an event.
Misinformation effect
When erroneous information occurring after an event is remembered as having been part of the original event.
Mnemonic devices
A strategy for remembering large amounts of information, usually involving imaging events occurring on a journey or with some other set of memorized cues.
Recoding
The ubiquitous process during learning of taking information in one form and converting it to another form, usually one more easily remembered.
Retrieval
The process of accessing stored information.
Retroactive interference
The phenomenon whereby events that occur after some particular event of interest will usually cause forgetting of the original event.
Semantic memory
The more or less permanent store of knowledge that people have.
Storage
The stage in the learning/memory process that bridges encoding and retrieval; the persistence of memory over time.
Attention and Decision making
Part 3
Which best describes selective attention?
the ability to select certain stimuli in the environment to process, while ignoring distracting information
Which option best describes the multimodal model of attention filtering?
suggests that the stage at which selection occurs can change depending on the task
Texting while driving is an example of divided attention.
True
___ are systematic and predictable mistakes that influence judgment and decision making
Biases
Joseph is very focused on counting the number of acorns that have fallen from a tree in his front yard. He is concentrating so hard, in fact, that he fails to notice the obvious and important fact that there is dog poop underneath the tree as well. Failing to notice this available information leads Joseph to step in the mess. Which of the following is this an example of?
Bounded awareness
The systematic way in which our ethics are limited in ways we are not even aware of ourselves is called______
Bounded ethicality
Dichotic listening
An experimental task in which two messages are presented to different ears.
Divided attention
The ability to flexibly allocate attentional resources between two or more concurrent tasks.
Inattentional blindness
The failure to notice a fully visible object when attention is devoted to something else.
Limited capacity
The notion that humans have limited mental resources that can be used at a given time.
Selective attention
The ability to select certain stimuli in the environment to process, while ignoring distracting information.
Shadowing
A task in which the individual is asked to repeat an auditory message as it is presented.
Subliminal perception
The ability to process information for meaning when the individual is not consciously aware of that information.
Anchoring
The bias to be affected by an initial anchor, even if the anchor is arbitrary, and to insufficiently adjust our judgments away from that anchor.
Biases
The systematic and predictable mistakes that influence the judgment of even very talented human beings.
Bounded awareness
The systematic ways in which we fail to notice obvious and important information that is available to us.
Bounded ethicality
The systematic ways in which our ethics are limited in ways we are not even aware of ourselves.
Bounded rationality
Model of human behavior that suggests that humans try to make rational decisions but are bounded due to cognitive limitations.
Bounded self-interest
The systematic and predictable ways in which we care about the outcomes of others.
Bounded willpower
The tendency to place greater weight on present concerns rather than future concerns.
Framing
The bias to be systematically affected by the way in which information is presented, while holding the objective information constant.
Heuristics
cognitive (or thinking) strategies that simplify decision making by using mental short-cuts
Overconfident
The bias to have greater confidence in your judgment than is warranted based on a rational assessment.
System 1
Our intuitive decision-making system, which is typically fast, automatic, effortless, implicit, and emotional.
System 2
Our more deliberative decision-making system, which is slower, conscious, effortful, explicit, and logical.
Language and Language Use
Part 4
A___ is a mental representation of an event, object, or situation constructed at the time of comprehending a linguistic description
Situation model
Amir’s friend Joe cheated on a test and got caught. When retelling the events Amir said that Joe only did it because the test was unannounced, making it unfair and that normally Joe wouldn’t even think about cheating. By framing Joe’s cheating as an exception to normal behavior, Amir is exhibiting
Linguistic intergroup bias
Which of the following is an example of how people in conversation tend to exhibit similar accents and rates of speech, often associated with people’s social identity?
While Adam is a native English American speaker he uses an Australian accent when he speaks to his dad who is from Australia.
A possible problem in the use of psychological tests (e.g., IQ tests) is that many different psychologists from different backgrounds and with different theoretical orientations and backgrounds may give the test. Every psychologist then might deliver the test differently. In order to overcome this problem, it is ideal if psychological tests are:
Standardized
Intelligence is:
An individual’s cognitive capacity, including the ability to acquire, process, recall and apply information
When people are aware of stereotypes about their social group as it relates to scores on intelligence tests:
Fear may undermine their performance
Which psychologist conducts research on the mindset of children looking at differences in high and low achievers with similar IQ scores
Carol Dweck
Pinna
visible portion of the outer ear that collects sound waves
Ear canal
Entry for sound waves to the middle ear
Ear drum
Thin flap of skin that vibrates when sound waves hit it
Stapes
One of the bones that transmits vibrations from the eardrum membrane to the liquid of the inner ear
Cochlea
Contains hais that vibrates in response to sounds translating vibrations into electrical impulses
Auditory nerve
Carries electrical impulses from the ear to the auditory cortex
Cornea
The clear outer layer at the front of the eye. The cornea helps your eye to focus light so you can see clearly
Iris
Thin structure in the eye responsible for controlling the diameter of the pupil and the amount of light entering the eye
Anterior chamber
supports the cornea maintaining shape of the eye
Lens
Allows the eye to focus on object at varying distances
Vitreous chamber
Fills the eyeball maintaining shape and transmits light to light-sensitive cells
Retina
Contains light - sensitive cells that translates light into electrical impulses to be transmitted to the brain
Optic Nerve
Transmits sensory electrical impulses from the eye to the brain
Nasal conchae
Provides for rapid warning and humidification of air as it passes to the lungs
Olfactory epithelium
Contains olfactory receptor cells, which have specialized cilia extensions. The cilia trap odor molecules as they pass across the epithelial surface
Olfactory bulb
Receives neural input about odors detected by cells in the nasal cavity
Olfactory tract
Connects the olfactory bulb to the remainder of the cerebral cortex
